MAE 4242 AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL

Nomenclature and Aerodynamics Review

(Nelson: Ch. 1)
Yongki Go

Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering

Conventional Aircraft Main Parts
Aircraft Axis Systems (1)
Right-handed Cartesian
axis systems that are often
used for aircraft motion
O
analysis:

Ground/navigation
axes (inertial)
Aircraft Axis Systems (2)
Ground axis system Exyz: acts as inertial reference frame
Fixed to earths surface, xz-plane vertical plane
z-coordinate indicates h (altitude)
Local horizon axis system Oxhyhzh
O CG of aircraft
Axes parallel to inertial axes
Wind axis system Oxwywzw
xw-axis // velocity vector; zw lies on the symmetry plane
Stability axis system Oxsyszs
xs-axis: projection of xw-axis on the aircrafts symmetry plane
zs lies on the symmetry plane
Body axes system Oxbybzb
Fixed to aircraft body
Standard Atmosphere (SA)
Aerodynamic forces are
affected by the atmospheric
properties
For analysis, Standard
Atmosphere model is often used
Constant gradient and
isothermal layers
In Standard Atmosphere model,
atmosphere behaves as
R 287 J/(kg.K)
p RT
1716 ft.lb/(slug.R)
Standard sea-level values for
pressure, density, and temperature:
Standard Atmosphere Table
Properties of Standard Atmosphere are often tabulated
Example:
Non-Standard Atmosphere Conditions
Sometimes, it is necessary to estimate actual aircraft flight
properties in the non-standard conditions
E.g. to ensure the aircraft is safe to fly
This is especially needed if the conditions deviate significantly
than the SA
US DoD defines 4 non-standard atmospheres:
Hot, cold, tropical, arctic
Airfoil Aerodynamics
Airfoil vs. Wing
Airfoil: cross-section geometry of aerodynamic-force-
generator elements (wings, tails, control surfaces)
Wing: finite-dimension aerodynamic-force-generator

In analysis:
Airfoil 2D flow (part of infinitely-long wing)
Wing 3D flow
Airfoil Lift Coefficient (1)
l l : lift per unit span
Definition: cl
q c q 12 V2 : dynamic pressure
V
In general cl f ( , M , Re) M : Mach number
a
Vc
Re : Reynolds number
Typical cl variation with :
dcl
Lift slope ( cl )
d
is constant before stall:
cl cl ( L 0 )
For thin airfoil: cl 2 /rad
For symmetric airfoil: L 0 0
stall
Airfoil Lift Coefficient (2)
Compressibility effect becomes significant for high-speed
flows
Use compressible flow analysis for M

Compressibility correction
for thin airfoil in subsonic
regime (Prandtl-Glauert rule):
cl ( M 0)
cl
1 M 2
In supersonic regime:
4
cl
M 2 1
Airfoil Drag Coefficient (1)
d
Definition: cd d: drag per unit span
q c

In general cd f ( , M , Re)
Typical cd variation with :

For symmetric airfoil,

cdmin is at
Airfoil Drag Coefficient (2)
Compressibility effect becomes significant for high-speed
flows
Use compressible flow analysis for M
Airfoil Moment Coefficient
m
Definition: cm m: moment per unit span
q c 2

In general cm f ( , M , Re)
cm variation with :

Moment coefficient
slope:
dcmc
cm 4

d
is constant before stall
Example Airfoil Data Charts (NACA 2412)
Aerodynamic Center
Aerodynamic center (a.c.): point about which the moments
are independent of angle of attack
L(cxa.c. c / 4) M c/4
M a.c.
q c 2
cm,a.c. cl xa.c. 0.25 cm,c /4
dcm,a.c. dcl dcm,c /4
xa.c. 0.25
d d d

cm
xa.c. 0.25 constant in the flow regimes
cl where cm and cl are constant
for many standard airfoils:
xa.c. 0.25
Wing Aerodynamics
Finite-Wing Nomenclature
x

LE y b: wing span
c/4
cr: root chord

Root
cr

c ct: tip chord

Tip

ct
S: wing
b planform area
ct
: taper ratio LE : sweep angle of
cr leading edge
b2 c 4 : sweep angle of
AR : aspect ratio
S quarter-chord line
b2
1
c c( y ) 2 dy : mean aerodynamic chord (mac)
S b 2
Finite Wing Aerodynamic Coefficients
Definitions of lift and drag coefficients of finite wing:
Lift
Lift coefficient: CL Lift: total lift of finite wing
q S
Drag
Drag coefficient: CD Drag: total drag of finite wing
q S

Note that the above definitions are also applicable for lift
and drag coefficients definitions of whole aircraft
In this case, Lift and Drag are total lift and drag of whole
Finite Wing Flow Characteristics
Pressure differences between upper and lower wing surfaces lead
to wing-tip vortices non-uniform lift distribution
 Aerodynamics of Finite Wing (1)
Lift slope of finite wing < lift slope of airfoil

cl and CL
Finite-wing lift slope
approximation:
cl
cl
CL
C cl
1
La

e1 AR
e1: span efficiency factor
Note: 0.5 < e1 < 1 for most
common wing shapes

Approximation above is quite accurate for high AR (AR > 4) wings

Aerodynamics of Finite Wing (2)
Total drag of finite wing = profile drag (2D) + induced drag
C
D
Total Drag
Induced Drag

Pressure Drag
Profile drag (2D airfoil drag)
Skin Friction Drag

CL

Finite wings drag coefficient approximation:

1
CD cd k CL 2
k
e1 AR
Example: Finite Wing CL and CD Calculation
Consider a straight wing of aspect ratio 6 with NACA 2412
airfoil. If e1 0.95 , calculate CL and CD in low subsonic flow at
6
From NACA 2412 airfoil data chart: cl 0.105 / 6.02 /rad
cl 6.02
CL 4.51 /rad 0.079 /
1 cl ( e1 AR) 1 6.02 (0.95)(6)
At 6 : (some of the values below are from the airfoil data)
CL CL ( L 0 ) 0.079 6 (2.2)
cd 0.0073
CL 2 0.6482
CD cd 0.0073
e1 AR (0.95) (6)
Note: for the 2D airfoil cl 0.85, so for the wing of AR = 6, the lift
coefficient reduction is 24%
Also note the increase in drag coefficient from its 2D value
Effect of High-Lift Devices
High-lift devices, such as flaps or slats, increase lift at
certain angle of attack, but at the expense of increased drag
Used usually in low-speed flight, e.g. during
Aircraft Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics of Whole Aircraft (1)
Fuselage, engine nacelles, tail, and other components affect
significantly to the total aerodynamics of the aircraft
Effects are not simple addition due to interaction/interference
No accurate analytical prediction for aerodynamics of whole
aircraft
Use wind tunnel experiment or computer simulation (CFD)
Aerodynamics of Whole Aircraft (2)
For conventional aircraft configurations, lift of the whole
aircraft is very nearly the same as lift of the wing alone
Wing planform area should include the wing area masked by
fuselage
General lift-curve properties still hold
CLmax

pre-stall post-stall

2 W 1
Vstall
S C Lmax
Aerodynamics of Whole Aircraft (3)
Like lift, the total drag of an aircraft depends on the drag of
all its components

Drag of the whole aircraft is usually many times greater

than the drag of the wing alone
Unlike for lift, whole aircraft drag predictions must include the
effects of all parts of the aircraft, not just the wing alone
L
Measure of aerodynamic efficiency:
D
High aerodynamic efficiency is often desirable
Drag Polar
Drag polar: relation between CD and CL of aircraft
Pre-stall drag can be modeled into component that varies
approximately parabolically with CL (induced drag) and
component that is independent of CL (parasite drag)
CD CDmin K (CL CLmin drag ) 2 1
K
e AR
e: Oswalds efficiency factor,
typically e < e1

Often-used assumption: CD CDmin 0

Simplified drag polar:

CD CD0 K CL2
Example of Supersonic Aircraft Drag Polar
Example: Aircraft Aerodynamic Calculation (1)
A flying wing with an area of 27.75 m2 has a NACA 2412 airfoil
section. The weight of the flying wing is 2270.6 kg and the aspect
ratio is 6. Assume e = 0.95 for the wing. For level flight at an
altitude of 1500 m and a speed of 160 km/h, determine the angle
of attack, induced drag coefficient, lift-to-drag ratio, and the drag.
Assume symmetrical drag polar form for the flying wing (CD,min =
CDo).
Solution: From the NACA 2412 airfoil data:
1.05 0
cl o 0.105/ o
6.0165 /rad CDo = cdo =
8 (2 )o

cl 6.0165
CL 4.503 /rad
cl 6.0165
1 1
e AR (0.95)(6)
For the flight at 1500 m altitude: = 1.0581 kg/m3
V = 160 km/h = 44.44 m/s
Example: Aircraft Aerodynamic Calculation (2)
For level flight: L = W
W 2270.6 (9.81)
CL 1 1
2 V S 2 (1.0581) (44.44) 27.75
2 2

CL CL ( L 0 )
7.77
Induced drag coefficient:
2 2
C 0.768
CDi KCL 2 L
0.0329
e AR (0.95) (6)
CL 2
Drag coefficient: CD CD 0.006 0.0329
0
e AR
Drag: D = q S CD= 1129.35 N
CL
Lift-to-drag ratio:
CD
 Aerodynamic Nomenclature About Body Axes

L: rolling moment
M: pitching moment
Center of gravity
N: yawing moment
(Lateral Axis)

(Longitudinal Axis)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(Directional Axis)

Aerodynamic force components: X, Y, Z V u 2 v 2 w2

Aerodynamic moment components: L, M, N
p2 q2 r 2
Velocity components:
Angular rate components:
Dimensionless Coefficients
In analysis, the aerodynamic forces and moments are often
non-dimensionalized:
X L
CX 1 Cl 1
2 V 2
S 2 V 2
Sb
Y M
CY 1 Cm 1
2 V S
2
2 V 2
Sc
Z N
CZ 1 Cn 1
2 V 2
S 2 V 2
Sb
Control Convention
Primary controls in conventional aircraft and their positive
sign convention:
T

rudder

a ()
r ()
e ()

e : elevator deflection angle + for positive lift

a : aileron deflection angle + for positive rolling moment L
r : rudder deflection angle + for positive side force
T : throttle setting + for increase in thrust
Longitudinal & Lateral-Directional Motions

Longitudinal or symmetric motion: motion restricted on the plane

of symmetry
Associated variables: u , w, q, X , Z , M , e , T

Lateral-directional or asymmetric motion: motion out of the

plane of symmetry
Associated variables: v, p, r , Y , L, N , a , r
Aerodynamic Forces and Angles
Aerodynamic forces:
Drag Lift Lift V (on the plane of symmetry)
Drag // V (opposite direction)
Side force plane of symmetry

Angle of attack and sideslip:

w
tan 1
u
1 v
sin
V
If the analysis only involves small angles:
u V
w w

sin(angle) angle u V
tan(angle) angle v v

V u