MAE 4242 AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL

Longitudinal Static Stability

(Nelson: 2.3)
Yongki Go

Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering

Longitudinal Static Stability Criterion
Equilibrium/Trimmed Flight
Flight stability is assessed from equilibrium/trimmed flight
conditions
In trimmed flight:
Force on horizontal
tails and elevators
Wing force
Fuselage
force Force on vertical
tail and rudder
Thrust
CG Wing force
Force on
canards Thrust
F 0
Weight M 0
Flight static stability concerns with the initial rotational
motion tendency of the aircraft when disturbed from
trimmed flight
Affected by initial moment change after disturbance
Aircraft Pitching Moment
Steady pitching moment of aircraft (M) about its CG is
mainly affected by angle of attack () and elevator
deflection (e)
M ( , e ) or Cm ( , e ) in general nonlinear
Typically expressed using first-order Taylor series (linear):
Cm Cm
Cm ( , e ) Cm0 Cm Cm e Cm Cm
e e
e
When aircraft is in longitudinal flight equilibrium at angle
of attack e at elevator deflection e : 0

M ( e , e ) 0 or Cm ( e , e ) 0
0 0

The change in pitching moment due to changes in and e:

Cm ( , e ) Cm Cm e
e
 Stick-Fixed Pitching Moment
Stick-fixed condition: control is held fixed at its trim setting
Corresponding to the situation where the pilot holds the
control at a fixed setting required to trim
Stability is property of aircraft and should be analyzed
under no control input/correction
In stick-fixed case, often assume e = 0
dCm
Cm ( ) Cm0 Cm Cm
d
Cm
Cm0 Cm0 : pitching moment coefficient
trim point when = 0
nose-up

0 e Cm
nose-down
nonlinear region
Longitudinal Static Stability Definition
Longitudinal static stability concerns with the initial
pitching-moment response tendency after an angle-of-attack
disturbance
Longitudinal statically stable aircraft generates restoring
pitching moment opposite to the angle-of-attack disturbance
If the restoring pitching moment is in the same direction as the
disturbance, aircraft is statically unstable longitudinally
Desired Restoring Moment(-Mcg
M ( ))

V (-
Displacement a() )
V

(+a() )
Disturbance

M ())
Desired Restoring Moment (+Mcg
Longitudinal Static Stability Criterion
Pitching-moment response to angle-of-attack disturbance:
Cm ( ) Cm Cm
0
Cm ( ) Cm
Cm has opposite sign to for longitudinal static stability
Criterion for longitudinal static stability:
dCm
Cm 0
d
Pitching-moment curve for statically stable aircraft:
Cm0

Cm
Degree of Longitudinal Static Stability
The value of Cm determines the degree of the stability
More negative Cm indicates more longitudinally statically
stable aircraft
More stable aircraft generates larger restoring moment per unit
angle-of-attack disturbance
If everything else is equal, more stable aircraft is more resistant
to disturbance
Trim Point Issue
In trimmed flight, lift is needed to counter weight
For typical lift curve, trimmed lift is preferred to be at
positive angle of attack
Based on linear Cm- model, for statically stable aircraft,
useful trim point requires Cm 0 0
CL
CLmax
Aircraft can be
trimmed here
CL0 CL

L 0 stall
Aircraft cannot be
trimmed here

CL CL ( L 0 )
~ CL CL CL
0
CL0 CL L 0
Alternative Criterion
Longitudinal static stability criterion can also be developed
from Cm-CL relationship
dCm dCm dCL dCm
Cm CL
d dCL d dCL
Since CL 0, the criterion for longitudinal static stability
can be expressed equivalently as: dCm C 0
0 ~ m
dCL
Cm-CL curve:
Note: Cm-CL curve can also be
approximated using a straight
line before stall:
dCm
Cm CmL0 CL
dCL
Variation in Static Stability
At high : Cm- (or Cm-CL) curve may vary nonlinearly
Static stability properties of aircraft at high may differ than
its static stability properties at low
In extreme cases, there may be stability reversal at high
Aircraft may be statically stable at low but become unstable at
high
stable

unstable
less stable
neutral
Stability reversal
Contribution of Aircraft Components to
Longitudinal Static Stability
Contribution of Aircraft Components (1)
Contribution of each aircraft component to the whole
aircrafts pitching moment can be studied using a technique
similar to component buildup approach
In component buildup approach, total aircraft pitching
moment is estimated by summing the contributions from
aircraft components
M cg M cg w M cgt M cg f M cg p
or Cmcg Cmcg Cm cg Cm cg Cm cg
w t f p

Not exact, but relatively simple and useful to gain physical

insight
Such approach is also used for estimating total lateral-
directional moments of aircraft
Contribution of Aircraft Components (2)
If Cm ( ) Cm Cm , then component contributions to Cm
0 0

and Cm :
Cm0 Cm0 Cm 0 Cm 0 Cm 0
w t f p

Cm Cm Cm Cm Cm
w t f p

Illustration:
Example 3.1: Horizontal Tail Requirement (1)
Wing-fuselage pitching-moment combination characteristics
of a single-engine conventional airplane:
Cm Cm Cm 0.05 0.0035 ; in degs
cg wf 0wf wf

The desired pitching moment characteristics of the complete

airplane (assume contribution from wing-fuselage and tail
only): Cm Cm Cm 0.15 0.025 ; in degs
cg 0

Determine the pitching moment requirement of the

horizontal tail
Solution: Using component build-up approach:
Cmcg Cmcg Cmcg
wf t

Cmcg Cmcg Cmcg

t wf

Cmcg Cm0 Cm (Cm0 Cm ) (Cm0 Cm )

t t t wf wf
Example 3.1: Horizontal Tail Requirement (2)

Cm0 Cm0 Cm0 0.15 (0.05) 0.20

t wf

Cm Cm Cm 0.025 (0.0035) 0.0215 /deg

t wf

Cmcg 0.20 0.0215 ; in degs

t
Wing Contribution (1)
Wing contribution to aircraft pitching moment comes from
its lift, drag, and moment Note: == aircraft FRL
iw: incidence angle of the wing
wrt FRL (wing setting angle)

(FRL)
CG

Wing mean aerodynamic chord ( c )

Pitching moment about CG:

M cg w Lw cos( w iw )[ xcg xac ] Dw sin( w iw )[ xcg xac ]
Lw sin( w iw ) zcg Dw cos( w iw ) zcg M acw
Wing Contribution (2)

Dividing by 12 V 2 Sc qc :
xcg xac xcg xac
Cmcg CLw cos( w iw ) CDw sin( w iw )
c c c c
w

zcg zcg
CLw sin( w iw ) CDw cos( w iw ) Cmac
c c w

Assume small angles: cos w iw 1 sin w iw 0

Typically: CL w
CDw
zcg xcg
Neglect vertical offset from CG:
c c
xcg xac
Cmcg Cmac CLw
c c
w w
Wing Contribution (3)

By considering linear lift curve:

CL CL CL w
w 0w w

w w

Cmcg Cmac CL0w CL w
w
xcg xac

c

c


This equation can be written in the form:
Cmcg Cm0 Cm w Cmcg
w
w w w

xcg xac Cm0

w

where: Cm Cmac CL0

c c
0w w w Cm
w

xcg xac w
Cm CL
w w
c c e
Wing Contribution (4)
For a wing-alone to be statically stable:
xcg xac
Cm CL 0
c c
w w

xcg xac

Wings aerodynamic center must lie aft of the CG

To trim wing-alone at positive :
xcg xac
Cm0 Cmac CL0 0
c c
w w w

Typically positive Negative for static stability

Cmac must be strongly positive
w

Note: conventional airfoils typically have Cm acw

0
Wing Contribution (5)
Wing contribution to aircraft longitudinal static stability
depends upon:
wings ac position relative to aircrafts CG
xcg xac
sign of Cmw CLw stabilizing or destabilizing
c c
xcg xac destabilizing
xcg xac stabilizing
wings airfoil camber
Cmac affecting Cm 0w
trim
w

Conventional wing typically has positive camber

Cmac 0 Tend to bring the value of Cm0w smaller or
w
more negative
Special Case (1)

For flying wing or tail-less aircraft, the wing should be

designed to ensure longitudinal static stability and trim
condition:
For longitudinal static stability: ac must be aft of CG
to ensure Cm 0 w

For longitudinal trim: must have Cm 0 0w

Use reflexed type of airfoil (negative camber)

Cmac Cmac
w w

Conventional airfoil Reflexed airfoil

Cmac 0 Cmac 0
w w
Special Case (2)
Use specific wing configuration that generates Cm 0
0w

Example: swept-back wing with twisted tips

CG

Pitching moment balance can be

achieved at positive to trim the
wing: +Lift
Moment
from +Lift
CG Moment Lift
from Lift
Example 3.2: Wing Contribution Calculation (1)
From Nelson, Example 2.2:

Assume span efficiency factor = 1

Determine the wing contribution to pitching moment for

this airplane at the given flight condition
Example 3.2: Wing Contribution Calculation (2)
Solution:
cl
CL With the assumption of e1 = 1:
cl
1
e1 AR

CL0 CL L 0
Example 3.2: Wing Contribution Calculation (3)
xcg xac
Cm0 Cmac CL0
c c
w w w

xcg xac
Cm CL
c c
w w
Horizontal Tail Contribution (1)
Horizontal tail is affected by flow field due to wing

Because of downwash, local

angle of attack at the
horizontal tail is lower than
freestream angle of attack

The magnitude of downwash at the tail depends on the

location of the tail with respect to the wing
Horizontal Tail Contribution (2)

downwash
angle

it: incidence angle of the horizontal

tail wrt FRL (tail setting angle)
Angle of attack of aircraft: w iw
Angle of attack at tail: t it w iw it
Assume small angles and neglect drag contribution:
Lw Lt L Lw Lt
Wing Tail
12 Vw2 SCLw 12 Vt 2 St CLt
W
Horizontal Tail Contribution (3)
Divide both sides with Vw2 S :
1
2
St
CL CLw CLt
S
Vt 2 qt
1
where: 2
Called tail efficiency
Vw qw
1
2
2
Range of values: 0.8-1.2

qt qw if the tail is located in the wake region of wing/fuselage

momentum loss in the wake
qt qw if the tail is located in the slipstream of propeller or in the
exhaust wake of a jet engine
momentum gain
Horizontal Tail Contribution (4)

Pitching moment due to tail:

M cgt lt Lt cos( ) Dt sin( )
zcgt Dt cos( ) Lt sin( ) M act
Assuming small angles, Lt Dt , zcgt lt , negligible M act :
M cgt lt Lt lt 12 Vt 2 St CLt
Horizontal Tail Contribution (5)
M cgt lt St
Nondimensionalizing: Cm CLt VH CLt
cgt
V 2 Sc
1
2 c S
lS horizontal tail
where: VH t t
cS volume ratio
Assuming CL 0 at t 0: (Reasonable assumption as tails airfoil is
t

CLt usually symmetric)

CLt CL t
t
CL
t
CL w iw it
t

t
The downwash angle can be expressed as:
d
0 w 0: downwash at w = 0
d
2CL d 2CL
For elliptical lift distribution: w
w

ARw d ARw
Horizontal Tail Contribution (6)
d
Combining: Cm VH CL 0 iw it VH CL 1 w
cgt t t
d
This equation can be put in the form:
Cm
Cmcg Cm0 Cm w cgt Cm0
t
t t t

where: Cm0 VH CL 0 iw it Cm
t
t t
w
d
Cm VH CL 1
t t
d

These equations can be used to set and size the horizontal

tail to meet the aircraft static stability and trim requirement
Horizontal Tail Contribution (7)
Horizontal tail setting and sizing:
To achieve certain degree of aircraft longitudinal static
stability (Cm ): adjust Cm by adjusting VH and CL
t t
VH is set by adjusting lt and St
CL is set by adjusting tail AR
t

To ensure aircraft trimming at positive (Cm0 0): adjust Cm0t

by adjusting it
More negative it more positive Cm0t
Example 3.3: Horizontal Tail Contribution (1)
For the airplane in Example 3.2, determine the horizontal
tail contribution to pitching moment for the given flight
condition (assume elliptical tail-lift distribution)
Solution:
cl
CL With the assumption of e1 = 1:
cl
1
e1 AR
lt St
VH
cS
2CLw

ARw
d 2CL
w

d ARw
Example 3.3: Horizontal Tail Contribution (2)
Cm0 VH CL 0 iw it
t t

d
Cm VH CL 1
t t
d
Example 3.4: Horizontal Tail Setting & Sizing (1)
Geometric and aerodynamic data of the single-engine
airplane in Example 3.1 are given below:
S 178 ft 2 AR 7.3 iw 2.0
b 35.9 ft CL 0.07 / deg xcg c 0.1
w

c 5.0 ft CL0 0.26

w

For the horizontal tail: lt 14.75 ft ARt 4.85

1 CL 0.073 / deg
t

Estimate horizontal tail area and tail incidence angle to

achieve airplane stability and trim properties as calculated
in Example 3.1
Solution: From Example 3.1:
Cm 0.20 0.0215
cgt
; in degs
Example 3.4: Horizontal Tail Setting & Sizing (2)
d Cm
From: Cm VH CL 1 VH t

d d
CL 1
t t

t
d
Assuming elliptical lift distribution:
d 2CL 2(0.07)
w
0.35
d ARw (7.3)
Cm 0.0215
VH t
0.453
d 1(0.073)(1 0.35)
CLt 1
d
By definition:
lt St c SVH (0.453)(178)(5)
VH St 27.3 ft 2
cS lt 14.75
Example 3.4: Horizontal Tail Setting & Sizing (3)
Cm0
From: Cm0 VH CL 0 iw it it t
iw 0
t t
VH CL
t
Assuming elliptical lift distribution:
2CL0 2(0.26)
0 0.0226 rad 1.3
ARw (7.3)
Cm0 0.20
it t
iw 0 2.0 1.3 2.7
VH CL 1(0.453)(0.073)
t
Canard Contribution (1)
Canard contribution to longitudinal static stability can be
derived in similar way as horizontal tail
Canard is located ahead of the wing
Differences between canard and horizontal tail contribution:
Canard is affected by upwash instead of downwash
Upwash effect is usually smaller than downwash

upwash

canard downwash
Canard Contribution (2)
Canard produces positive lift (desirable) to counter the wings
nose-down pitching moment, while horizontal tail generally
produces negative lift (down force, reduces total lift)

CG
Conventional configuration

CG
Canard configuration
Canard contribution to longitudinal static stability is
destabilizing, while horizontal tail tends to be stabilizing
Not a severe limitation, since CG location can be adjusted to
achieve the desired static stability