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INTRODUCTION TO

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES AND
MATERIALS
MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS PROCESSING
A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

FOUNDING EDITOR

Geoffrey Boothroyd
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island

1. Computers in Manufacturing, U. Rembold, M. Seth, and J. S. Weinstein


2 . Cold Rolling of Steel, William L. Roberts
3. Strengthening of Ceramics: Treatments, Tests, and Design Applications,
Harry P. Kirchner
4. Metal Forming: The Application of Limit Analysis, Betzalel Avitzur
5. Improving Productivity by Classification, Coding, and Data Base
Standardization: The Key to Maximizing C A D K A M and Group
Technology, William F. Hyde
6 . Automatic Assembly, Geoffrey Boothroyd, Corrado Poli, and Laurence E.
Murch
7 . Manufacturing Engineering Processes, Leo Alting
8. Modern Ceramic Engineering: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design,
David W. Richerson
9. Interface Technology for Computer-Controlled Manufacturing Processes,
Ulrich Rembold, Karl Armbruster, and Wolfgang Ulzmann
10. Hot Rolling of Steel, William L. Roberts
1 1. Adhesives in Manufacturing, edited by Gerald L. Schneberger
12. Understanding the Manufacturing Process: Key t o Successful CAD/ CAM
Implementation, Joseph Harrington, Jr.
13. Industrial Materials Science and Engineering, edited by Lawrence E. Murr
14. Lubricants and Lubrication in Metalworking Operations, Elliot S.
Nachtman and Serope Kalpakjian
15 . Manufacturing Engineering: An Introduction to the Basic Functions, John
P. Tanner
16 . Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Technology and Systems, Ulrich
Rembold, Christian Blume, and Ruediger Dillman
1 7 . Connections in Electronic Assemblies, Anthony J. Bilotta
18 . Automation for Press Feed Operations: Applications and Economics,
Edward Walker
19. Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes, Gary F. Benedict
20. Programmable Controllers for Factory Automation, David G. Johnson
2 1. Printed Circuit Assembly Manufacturing, Fred W. Kear
22. Manufacturing High Technology Handbook, edited by Donatas TjJunelis
and Keith E. McKee
23. Factory Information Systems: Design and Implementation for CIM
Management and Control, John Gaylord
24. Flat Processing of Steel, William L. Roberts
25. Soldering for Electronic Assemblies, Leo P, Lambert
26. Flexible Manufacturing Systems in Practice: Applications, Design, and
Simulation, Joseph Talavage and Roger G. Hannam
27. Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Benefits for the Low Inventory Factory,
John E. Lenz
20. Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools: Second Edition, Geoffrey
Boothroyd and Winston A. Knight
29. Computer-Automated Process Planning for World-Class Manufacturing,
James Nolen
30. Steel-Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice, Vladimir B. Ginzburg
31. Computer Integrated Electronics Manufacturing and Testing, Jack
Arabian
32. In-Process Measurement and Control, Stephan D. Murphy
33. Assembly Line Design: Methodology and Applications, We-Min Chow
34 * Robot Technology and Applications, edited by Ulrich Rembold
35. Mechanical Deburring and Surface Finishing Technology, Alfred F.
Scheider
36. Manufacturing Engineering: An Introduction to the Basic Functions,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John P. Tanner
37 * Assembly Automation and Product Design, Geoffrey Boothroyd
38. Hybrid Assemblies and Multichip Modules, Fred W. Kear
39. High-Quality Steel Rolling: Theory and Practice, Vladimir B, Ginzburg
40. Manufacturing Engineering Processes: Second Edition, Revised and Ex-
panded, Leo Alting
41. Metalworking Fluids, edited by Jerry P. Byers
42. Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems, edited by John A. Bosch
43. Arc Welding Automation, Howard B. Cary
44 * Facilities Planning and Materials Handling: Methods and Requirements,
Vijay S. Sheth
45. Continuous Flow Manufacturing: Quality in Design and Processes, Pierre
C. Guerindon
46. Laser Materials Processing, edited by Leonard Migliore
47. Re-Engineering the Manufacturing System: Applying the Theory of Con-
straints, Robert E. Stein
40. Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering, edited by Jack M. Walker
49. Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, David A. Stephenson and John S.
Agapiou
50. Manufacturing Process Design and Optimization, Robert F. Rhyder
51. Statistical Process Control in Manufacturing Practice, Fred W. Kear
52. Measurement of Geometric Tolerances in Manufacturing, James D. Mea-
do ws
53. Machining of Ceramics and Composites, edited by Said Jahanmir, M. Ram-
ulu, and Phi/@Koshy
54. Introduction t o Manufacturing Processes and Materials, Robert C. Creese

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Computer-Aided Fixture Design, Yiming (Kevinl Rong and Yaoxiang


(Stephens) Zhu
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INTRODUCTION TO
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES AND
MATERIALS
ROBERT C. CREESE
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia

M A R C E L

MARCELDEKKER,
INC. N E WYORK BASEL
D E K K E R
ISBN: 0-8247-9914-3

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Copyright 0 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
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Current printing (last digit):


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PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA


Preface

The traditional approach to manufacturing processes is that of a seed cat-


alog, in which each process is presented in a separate section. This ap-
proach makes it difficult to compare processes or to get a general overview
of manufacturing. This book takes a new approach, integrating manufactur-
ing management, materials, manufacturing processes, and design consider-
ations. This presentation also places an emphasis on problems, because en-
gineering students are problem solvers and enjoy the solution of problems.
Manufacturing is multidisciplinary -it involves the product-design
and strength-of-material aspects of mechanical engineering; the fundamen-
tals-of-material-structure, solidification, and process-design concepts of ma-
terials processing and engineering; and the cost-evaluation, fundamentals-
of-manufacturing-processing, quality-control, and total-quality-management
aspects of industrial engineering. Other topics, such as tool engineering and
failure analysis, have been taught in more than one of the aforementioned
areas. Because manufacturing involves such a broad spectrum of knowledge,
it requires integrated teamwork among members of the various engineering
disciplines. Teamwork-involving design, materials selection, process se-
lection, marketing, purchasing, production, quality, and other manufacturing
functions-is necessary to develop the best product for the consumer.
A new systems approach to process selection is presented to indicate
the importance of the integration of design, materials, and product manu-
facture. The relationship of material properties to design is described, along
with approaches to material selection considering cost. The discussions in
Chapters 2 through 5 represent a review of basic materials science and en-
gineering material properties, and students who have had previous courses
in materials may need only a quick review of these subjects; however, some
items presented in this text are often omitted in traditional materials and
material property courses. The information in Chapter 6 is very important
and has not been included in most materials science or engineering design
courses.
iii
iv Preface

This is an introductory book, and it focuses on traditional metal man-


ufacturing for two primary reasons:
I. Metals are used more than any other material, and their material
properties, such as strength, density, and cost, are better known
that those for the other commonly used structural materials, such
as polymers, ceramics, and wood. The design relationships are
better developed for metals, and thus it is easier to understand the
integration of design, materials, process, and management.
2. This is an introductory book, and the relationships for design and
manufacturing are quite different from those used in electronics
manufacture or for complex composite structures. These more spe-
cialized topics must be covered in more specialized books. How-
ever, the design relationships that use volume fractions for mi-
crostructures and property determinations are the same as those
used to determine the properties of composite mixtures.
The students in the IMSE 202 classes at West Virginia University were
very helpful with their critical comments concerning most of the material
presented. Dr. Sheikh Burhanuddin, a former graduate student in the Indus-
trial Engineering Department, did most of the work on preparing the ma-
terials for Chapter 10 on polymer processing and Chapter 16 on tool design
for manufacturing. Most of the figures in this book were created by Dr.
Mansoor Nainy Nejad, a former graduate student in the Industrial and Man-
agement Systems Engineering Department.
During the writing of this book, the World Wide Web has become a
major information source, and considerable information on manufacturing
and materials is now available on the Web. In addition, the author has been
working with Dr. Poul H. K. Hansen at Aalborg University in Denmark on
the development of a virtual textbook on manufacturing processes. Mr.
Naveen Rammohan selected most of the Internet references utilized in this
book. The Internet references for the Aalborg University Process Database
being developed by Dr. Poul H. K. Hansen and the IMSE 304 Process
Database at West Virginia University are, respectively:
http://wkv w. iprod.auc.dk/procesdb/index.htrn
http://www. cernr:wvu.edu/-irnse304/
Many people who truly believed in the importance of manufacturing
have had an indirect influence on this book: Ben Niebel, Alan Draper, and
Jerry Goodrich from the Industrial Engineering program at Penn State; Paul
DeGarmo during my M.S. program at Berkeley; and Erik Pedersen during
his visit to West Virginia University and my visits to Aalborg University in
Denmark. Other faculty members at Aalborg University have been helpful,
Preface v

especially Poul Hansen and Sven Hvid Nielsen. The importance of materials
was emphasized by George Healy, George Simkovich, and Doc Lindsay
during my Ph.D. program in metallurgy at Penn State.
There are many new concepts in this book, and the emphasis is on
problem solving. The design of the product is only the starting point in
manufacturing; for example, for a casting shrinkage allowances must be
added, the feeding (riser) and gating systems must also be designed, the
pattern must be produced, and the product design may need to be modified
to reduce manufacturing costs. There will be errors in this book and they
are solely my responsibility and not that of the others who have written or
assisted in the writing of various sections. Their help was greatly
appreciated.
The writing of this book has taken time from other activities, partic-
ularly the free time I would have spent with my family members-
Natalie, Jennifer, Rob and Denie, and Chal and Carol-and their patience
has been appreciated. Finally, it is appropriate to dedicate this effort to our
most recent family members, our grandchildren Robby and Samantha, who
continually remind us of the wonderful future ahead.

Robert C. Creese
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Contents

...
Preface Ill

I Manufacturing Management and Overview 1


1 The Role of Manufacturing in Global Economics,
Manufacturing Aids, and Manufacturing Break-Even Analysis 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Manufacturing Aids 5
1.3 Manufacturing Break-Even Analysis 9
1.4 The Internet and Manufacturing 18
1.5 Professional Societies 18
1.6 Summary 18
1.7 Evaluative Questions 19
1.8 Research Questions 21
References 21
Internet Sources 22

I1 Material and Design Considerations in Manufacturing 23


2 Basic Material Properties 25
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Atomic Bonding 25
2.3 Crystalline Structure 26
2.4 Miller Indices 31
2.5 Phase Diagrams 33
2.6 Summary 45
2.7 Evaluative Questions 46
References 48
Internet Sources 48

3 Mechanical Material Property Relationships 49


3.1 Introduction 49
vii
viii Contents

3.2 Engineering Stress-Strain 49


3.3 True Stress-Strain 54
3.4 Relationships between Engineering Stress-Strain and
True Stress-Strain 55
3.5 Strain Hardening Relationships and Stress-Strain Data 57
3.6 Hardness Relationships for Approximating Tensile
Strength 58
3.7 Material Properties and Microstructure 59
3.8 Summary 63
3.9 Evaluative Questions 63
References 65
Internet Sources 65

4 Methods for Increasing Mechanical Material Properties 67


4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Solid Solution Hardening 68
4.3 Strengthening by Grain Size Control 68
4.4 Strengthening by Strain Hardening 69
4.5 Heat Treatment 75
4.6 Summary 82
4.7 Evaluative Questions 83
References 84
Bibliography 84
Internet Sources 84

5 Material Codes and Coding Systems 85


5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 General Metal Coding System 85
5.3 Material Codes and Classifications for Ferrous Materials 86
5.4 Coding for Aluminum Alloys 89
5.5 Material Codes and Properties 91
5.6 Summary 91
5.7 Evaluative Questions 91
References 95
Bibliography 95
Internet Sources 95

6 Design, Material, and Cost Relationships 97


6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Basic Expression Development 97
6.3 Minimum-Cost Design for Strength Requirements for
Simple Tension Loading 98
Contents ix

6.4 Design Performance Calculations for Other Types


of Loading 103
6.5 Design Calculations with Multiple Constraints 105
6.6 Ashby Plots for Materials Evaluation 106
6.7 Summary 107
6.8 Evaluative Questions 108
6.9 Research Questions 109
6.10 Manufacturing Design Problems 109
References 114
Bibliography 115
Internet Sources 115

I11 Manufacturing Processes 117


7 Manufacturing Processes Overview 119
7.1 General Process Overview 119
7.2 Casting Overview 123
7.3 Powder Processing Overview 125
7.4 Bulk Deformation Process Overview 126
7.5 Sheet Metal Process Overview 128
7.6 Machining (Metal Removal or Cutting) Overview 129
7.7 Joining Process Overview 131
7.8 Summary 132
7.9 Evaluative Questions 132
References 133
Internet Sources 133

8 Process Selection Basics 135


8.1 Introduction 135
8.2 Process Selection Procedure 135
8.3 Summary 151
8.4 Evaluative Questions 152
References 154
Internet Sources 155

9 Metal Casting Process Considerations 157


9.1 Casting Overview 157
9.2 Design Considerations in Casting 165
9.3 Casting Quality Considerations 166
9.4 Basic Theoretical Fundamentals for Casting 167
9.5 Fluidity Considerations 170
9.6 Basic Gating and Risering Design Calculations 171
X Contents

9.7 Yield and Economic Considerations in Casting i84


9.8 Summary of the Casting Process 187
9.9 Evaluative Questions 187
References 190
Bibliography 191
Internet Sources 191

10 Plastic Parts Manufacturing 193


10.1 Introduction 193
10.2 Classification of Polymers 194
10.3 Plastic Parts Manufacturing Processes 194
10.4 Plastic Processes and Products from Various Polymers 20 1
10.5 Design and Manufacturing Considerations for Plastic
Parts 20 1
10.6 Estimating Costs for an Injection-Molded Part 205
10.7 Troubleshooting Part Defects 208
10.8 Summary 208
10.9 Evaluative Questions 209
References 209
Internet Sources 210

11 Powder Processing 21 I
1 1.1 Introduction 21 1
11.2 Powder Metallurgy Process 212
1 1.3 Process Advantages, Unusual Properties, and Process
Limitations 215
1 1.4 Design Considerations 217
11.5 Summary 22 1
1 1.6 Evaluative Questions 22 1
References 223
Bibliography 223
Internet Sources 223

12 Bulk Deformation Processing 225


12.1 Introduction 225
12.2 Bulk Deformation Processes 227
12.3 Deformation Considerations 230
12.4 Force Determination 233
12.5 Forging Cost Estimating 240
12.6 Summary 24 I
12.7 Evaluative Questions 242
References 243
Internet Sources 244
Contents xi

13 Sheet Metal Forming 245


13.1 Introduction 245
13.2 Defects in Sheet Metal Products 246
13.3 Strain Ratios and Anisotropic Behavior 246
13.4 Shearing Types and Forces 250
13.5 Bending Stresses, Minimum Bend Radius, and
Bend Length 253
13.6 Deep Drawing Calculations 257
13.7 Summary and Conclusions 262
13.8 Evaluative Questions 262
References 264
Internet Sources 264
Appendix 13.A Alternative Shearing Force Formula 265

14 Machining (Metal Removal or Cutting) Processes 267


14.1 Introduction 267
14.2 Chip Formation 268
14.3 Mac hinabili ty 270
14.4 Metal-Cutting Models for Cutting Force Analysis 270
14.5 Tool Wear Failure Mechanisms 27 1
14.6 Taylor Tool-Life Model 272
14.7 C 1ass ifi cation of Machi ning Proce sses 274
14.8 Machining Variables and Relationships 277
14.9 Graphical-Based Approach to Feeds and Speeds 286
14.10 Taylor Tool-Life and Economics Model 288
14.11 Detailed Metal-Cutting Problems 289
14.12 Nonmechanical (Nontraditional) Machining 294
14.13 Summary 295
14.14 Evaluative Questions 295
References 297
Internet Sources 298
Appendix 14.A Derivation of Optimal Tool-Life
Values for Metal-Cutting Economics Models 299

15 Joining Processes, Design, and Economics 303


15.1 Introduction to Joining 303
15.2 Fastener Categories and Descriptions 304
15.3 Adhesive Bonding 31 1
15.4 Cohesive (Welding) Joining Processes 315
15.5 Basic Welding Calculations 327
15.6 Welding Economics 330
15.7 Summary and Conclusions 335
xii Contents

15.8 Evaluative Questions 335


References 339
Internet Sources 340

IV Manufacturing Support Functions 341


16 Tool Design for Manufacturing 343
16.1 Introduction 343
16.2 Tool Design for Machining 344
16.3 Jigs and Fixtures 346
16.4 Dies for Manufacturing 352
16.5 Patterns for Sand Castings 354
16.6 Tools for Sheet Metal Work 355
16.7 Tools for Inspection and Gaging 360
16.8 Summary 365
16.9 Evaluative Questions 366
References 367
Internet Sources 367

17 Failure Analysis and Prevention 369


17.1 Introduction 369
17.2 Failure Types and Modes 372
17.3 Sources of Failure 374
17.4 Failure Analysis Procedure 376
17.5 Product Liability Issues 384
17.6 Summary 387
17.7 Evaluative Questions 388
17.8 Research Questions 388
References 388
Internet Sources 389

Index 39 I
MANUFACTURING MANAGEMENT
AND OVERVIEW
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The Role of Manufacturing in Global
Economics, Manufacturing Aids, and
Manufacturing Break-Even Analysis

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing, which has been practiced for several thousand years, is, in
the broadest sense, the process of converting raw materials into products.
The word manufacturing is derived from the Latin, manu factus, which
means made by hand. Reference to manufacturing is made in Genesis
(4:22), when Tubal-Cain is described as a smith who made sharp tools of
bronze and iron. This not only indicates the long history of manufacturing,
but also indicates the importance of materials in manufacturing which has
often been neglected.
Manufacturing engineering is the term widely used in the United
States, whereas in Japan and Europe the term production engineering is
used. Manufacturing has always been a critical element in warfare; but dur-
ing the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, manufacturing became a
critical element in society by providing consumer goods and mechanizing
agriculture to reduce the number of people needed to produce the food
supply. During the Industrial Revolution of the 20th century, much of the
physical labor and dangerous work is being performed by machines rather
than by human effort.
The relationship (1,2) between the gross national product (GNP) per
capita and the contribution of manufacturing to the GNP is presented in Fig.
1.1. Countries with high manufacturing contributions to the GNP have higher
per-capita incomes than those countries with low contributions of manufac-
turing to the GNP. In addition, recent events in world politics have indicated
the importance of a strong manufacturing base. The rise of Japan and other
nations of the Pacific rim has been the result of their strong manufacturing
base, and the decline of Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet Union
3

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