CHT 2 Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Metals: Objectives

10/25/2010
Chapter
Ch t 2
Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of
Metals
Includes sections
2 1 2.2,
2.1, 2 2 2.3,
2 3 2.11,
2 11 2.12
2 12
(total of 5 sections)
1 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir
Objectives
Supply the fundamentals for the manufacturing

processingg of Ch 6 and Ch 7 ((Deformation pprocesses))
p
Basic understanding of mathematical relations

correlating the deformation (strain), applied loads, and
mechanical properties (yield stress, UTS, E, G)
Both for elastic and plastic deformation
Theories and criteria
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Introduction
Forming: any process that changes the shape of a

ggiven raw stock without changing
g g its phase
p (solid)
( )
Example around us
Bulk deformation: workpiece has small surface area to

thickness ratio ( thick chunk))
Sheet deformation: workpiece has high surface area to
thickness ration
Forming processes
Bulk forming
tf Vf Vf
to to tf
Vo
Vo
Forging
Rolling
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Forming Processes
Sheet forming
Deep drawing
Bending
Deformation
Change of shape or deformation is measured by

calculatingg strain
In case of deformation by tension or compression,

Strain is defined as
e = (final length initial length)/ initial length
e = (l - lo /lo )
In case of deformation by shear, shear strain is defined
as the tangent of the difference in angle between
two lines
= tan
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for a and b: e = (l - lo /lo )

For c: = tan = a/b
FIGURE 2.1 Types of strain. (a) Tensile, (b) compressive, and (c) shear. All deformation
processes in manufacturing involve strains of these types. Tensile strains are involved in
stretching sheet metal to make car bodies, compressive strains in forging metals to make
turbine disks, and shear strains in making holes by punching.
Tensile test results: Load vs.

Elongation
Tension
If specimen is thicker,
bigger forces is needed
to cause deformation
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Elastic deformation
When a material deforms under a certain load, then

retain its original length when unloaded, the
deformation is said to be elastic.
increase in length but area is constant
There will be linear relation between the load and
elongation.
To eliminate the effect of the size
the load is divided by the original area to get the stress;
= F/Ao
and the length divided by original length to get the
strain, e
Thus is proportional to e
Hookes law: = E e
Where E is the Youngs modulus (modulus of
elasticity)
Figure 2.2 (a) Original and final shape of a standard tensile-test specimen. (b) Outline of a
10 tensile-test sequence showing stages in the elongation of the specimen.
Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir
5
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Modulus of resilience
The ability of material to store energy and give it back
again
Energy
Energ is stored inside material byb deforming it
Can be completely reversed back only when all
deformation is retained, thus
In the elastic region
Defined as the area under the elastic portion of the
vs. e curve
Modulus of resilience = Yeo/ 2 = Y2/(2E)
e0
Y (or y in the graph) is yield stress, the stress
where the elastic deformation ends
eo is the strain corresponding to the yield stress.
Plastic deformation
Applied stresses are greater
the yield stress
Area start to uniformly
decrease
Stress reaches maximum
value UTS [callister 7th ed.]
Just after UTS is reached,
necking starts to occur.
Area decrease is not uniform
as necking commence
Localized area keeps
decreasing until failure at
fracture stress.
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Ductility
It indicate the extend to which a material can be

deformed without fracture
Can be quantified in tension test by the elongation and
by the reduction in area (lf is length at fracture)
Elongation = ((lf lo) / lo )X 100
The shorter the specimen the more it is affected by
necking, initial length should always be reported with
Elongation
Reduction of Area = ((Ao Af)/ Ao) X100
True Stress & True Strain
Stress measure the material resistance to the applied load.

At each of time the true stress should be computed as
T = F/A
Where A is the Actual area (instantaneous area)
And strain is the measure of the material to deform.
At each length the ability of the metal to deform should be
measured according to
d = dl/l = - dA/A
Where l is the instantaneous length
The true strain is thus = ln (l/l0)
As volume is constant Al = A0 l0
True strain will also be as = 2 ln (D0/D) = ln (A0/A)
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When to use true stress and true strain
Engineering values for the stress and strain are easier

to calculate and theyy ggive very
y accurate description
p of
the deformation only at low value of strains
For metal deformation processing strains has large
values and Engineering stress and strains cannot
accurately describe the material status
For these large values of strains only use true stress
andd true strain
i
True Stress - True Strain Curve
FIGURE 2.5 (a) True stress--true

strain curve in tension. Note that,
unlike in an engineering stress-strain
curve, the slope is always positive and
that the slope decreases with
increasing strain. Although in the
elastic range stress and strain are
proportional, the total curve can be
approximated by the power expression
shown. On this curve, Y is the yield
stress and Yf is the flow stress. (b)
T
True stress-true
t t strain
t i curve plotted
l tt d on
a log-log scale. (c) True stress-true
strain curve in tension for 1100-O
aluminum plotted on a log-log scale.
Note the large difference in the slopes
in the elastic and plastic ranges.
Source: After R. M. Caddell and R.
Sowerby.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
8
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flow stress Yf (the stress necessary to continue the

deformation stress) increases as deformation increase.
This is called strain hardening
true stress vs
vs. true strain reflects the correct properties of the
material during deformation
Toughness:
Energy to break a unit volume of material (energy/volume)
Approximated by the area under the true stress- true strain
curve.
curve
f

d
0
Plastic deformation
The relation between true stress and true strain are

p
derived from the experiment data and can be
approximated as
T = Kn
K is the strength coefficient
n is the strain-hardening exponent
T always increase due to strain hardening

(movement of dislocation to the boundaries)
At necking n =
(the strain hardening exponent equals to the value
of true strain at the onset of necking)
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Power Law Material Behavior

MATERIAL K (MPa) n
Aluminum, 1100-O 180 0.20
2024-T4 690 0.16
5052-O 210 0.13
6061-O 205 0.20
6061 T6
6061-T6 410 0 05
0.05
K n
7075-O 400 0.17
Brass, 70-30, annealed 895 0.49
85-15, cold-rolled 580 0.34
Bronze (phosphor), annealed 720 0.46
Cobalt-base alloy, heat treated 2070 0.50
Copper, annealed 315 0.54
Molybdenum, annealed 725 0.13
Steel, low-carbon, annealed 530 0.26
1045 hot-rolled 965 0.14
1112 annealed 760 0.19
1112 cold-rolled 760 0.08
4135 annealed 1015 0.17
4135 cold-rolled 1100 0.14
4340 annealed 640 0.15
17-4 P-H annealed 1200 0.05
52100 annealed 1450 0.07
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10
Note: 100 MPa = 14,500 psi.
Table 2.3 Typical values
of K and n in Eq. (2.11)
at room temperature.
Relation between engineering

stress/strain and true stress true strains
1 eng
ln 1 eng
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Types of Stress-Strain curves
FIGURE 2.8 Schematic illustration of various types of

idealized stress-strain curves. (a) Perfectly elastic. (b)Rigid,
perfectly plastic. (c) Elastic, perfectly plastic. (d) Rigid,
li
linearly
l strain
i hardening.
h d i Ep is i referred
f d to as the
h plastic
l i
modulus and is the slope of the stress-strain curve after
yielding. (e) Elastic, linearly strain hardening. The broken lines
and arrows indicate unloading and reloading, respectively,
during the test. Most engineering metals exhibit a behavior
similar to that shown in curve (e).
FIGURE 2.9 The effect of the strain -

hardening exponent, n, on the shape of
true-stress-true-strain curves. When n = 1,
the material is elastic, and when n = 0, it is
rigid and perfectly plastic.
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Effect of Temperature
As temperature
increases:
1. Ductility and
T h
Toughness
increase
2. Strain-hardening
exponent n,
Youngs
modulus, UTS,
yield stress
decrease
FIGURE 2.10 Typical effects of temperature on engineering stress-

strain curves. Temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, yield
23 stress, ultimate tensile strength, and toughness of materials. Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir
Temperature and Strain Rate Effects
FIGURE 2.10 The effect of strain rate on the

FIGURE 2.92 9 Effect of temperature on mechanical li
ultimate tensile
il strength
h off aluminum.
l i N
Note
properties of a carbon steel. Most materials display that as temperature increases, the slope
similar temperature sensitivity for elastic modulus, yield increases. Thus, tensile strength becomes
strength, ultimate strength, and ductility. more and more sensitive to strain rate as
temperature increases. Source: After J. H.
Hollomon.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
12
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Strain rate ( e, )
Mechanical properties may be affected by the rate by which
specimen is pulled with
There are strain-rate-sensitive
strain rate sensitive materials and strain-rate-insensitive
strain rate insensitive
As strain rate increases, strain-hardening exponent; n, decreases
This effect increases as temperature increase
l l0
d( )
de l0 d (l l0 )
e
dt dt l0 dt
dl dl v
0
l0 dt l0 dt l0 For constant true strain
rate velocity needs to
l
d (ln ) keep creasing
d l0 d (ln l ln l0 ) v

25 dt dt dt l Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir
Strain Rate Sensitivity
FIGURE 2.11 The effect of strain rate on the FIGURE 2.12 Dependence of the strain-rate sensitivity
ultimate tensile strength of aluminum. Note exponent m on the homologous temperature T/Tm for
that as temperature increases, the slope various materials. T is the testing temperature, and Tm is
increases thus, tensile strength becomes more the melting point of the metal, both on the absolute scale.
sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases. The transition in the slopes of the curve occurs at about
Source: After J. H. Hollomon. the recrystallization temperature of the metals. Source:
After F. W. Boulger.
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Stress-strain rate relation m

C
C
3
MATERIAL TEMPERATURE, C psi x 10 MPa m
Aluminum 200-500 12-2 82-14 0.07-0.23 C: Strength
Aluminum alloys 200-500 45-5 310-35 0-0.20 coefficient
Copper 300-900 35-3 240-20 0.06-0.17
Copper alloys (brasses) 200-800 60-2 415-14 0.02-0.3
Lead 100-300 1.6-0.3 11-2 0.1-0.2 m: Strain rate
Magnesium 200-400 20-2 140-14 0.07-0.43 sensitivity
Steel
Low-carbon 900-1200 24-7 165-48 0.08-0.22 exponent
Medium-carbon 900-1200 23-7 160-48 0.07-0.24
Stainless 600-1200 60-5 415-35 0.02-0.4 Cold working:
Titanium 200-1000 135-2 930-14 0.04-0.3
Titanium alloys 200-1000 130-5 900-35 0.02-0.3 m= 0-0.05
*
Ti-6Al-4V 815-930 9.5-1.6 65-11 0.50-0.80
Zirconium
-4 -1
200-1000 120-4 830-27 0.04-0.4 Hotworking:
* At a strain rate of 2 x 10 s .
Note: As temperature increases, C decreases and m increases. As strain increases, C increases and m may m= 0.05-0.4
increase or decrease, or it may become negative within certain ranges of temperature and strain.
Source: After T. Altan and F.W. Boulger. Superplastic
materials (Ti,
Table 2.5 Approximate range of values Al-Zn alloys):
for C and m in Eq. (2.16) for various m = 0.3-0.85
annealed materials at true strains ranging
from 0.2 to 1.0.
Strain-Rate Sensitivity Effect on Total

Elongation
FIGURE 2.13 (a) The effect of the strain-rate sensitivity exponent m on the total
elongation for various metals. Note that elongation at high values of m approaches
1000%. Source: After D. Lee and W. A. Backofen. (b) The effect of the strain-rate
sensitivity exponent on the postuniform (after necking) elongation for various metals.
Source: After A. K. Ghosh.
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Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

29
Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure and

Radiation
As pressure increases:
Increases strain at fracture
Same strain at which necking occur
As radiation occurs:
Higher yield stress
Increased UTS and hardness
Decreased ductility and toughness
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THE CORRECTED TRUE STRESS-

TRUE STAIN
Due to necking the true stress is not uniaxial (i.e. in one
direction), but also have radial and tangential components. As
the stress required to cause deformation after necking is lowered
leading to a corrected value of the true stress (Se Example 2.7)
Compression
Due to friction at the interface between the cylinder

specimen and the flat plat, barreling will occur.
Energy is dissipated and specimen area is changing
Proper lubrication will improve it
v
e For constant true strain
h0 rate velocity needs to

keepp deceasingg (using
( ga
v cam plastometer)

h
No necking
The yield stress in compression test equals that in tension
Y
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Plain Strain Compression Test
2D strain
As in the Figure,
Figure the
width is constant
For this condition, the
the material will start to yield
when the effective stress
Y' = 1.15
1 15 Y (according to
Distortion energy theory)
For ductile materials: t vs. are same in compression
and tension. But not for brittle materials
Bauschinger Effect (strain softening, work

softening)
When the direction of the load
is reversed,
reversed the yield stress will
be reduced (phenomenon called
Strain softening or work softening
FIGURE 2.18 Schematic illustration of the

Bauschinger effect. The arrows show loading and
unloading paths. Note the decrease in the yield
stress in compression after the specimen has been
subjected to tension. The same result is obtained if
compression is applied first, followed by tension,
whereby the yield stress in tension decreases.
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The Disk Test
Brittle material in disk form

as in Figure,
Figure tensile stress will be
developed in a perpendicular
direction to the vertical center line
Along the disk
As a result, the disk will split vertically
= 2P/( d t) FIGURE 2.19 Disk test on a brittle material,
d: diameter, t: thickness showing the direction of loading and the
fracture path. This test is useful for brittle
materials, such as ceramics, carbides, and
round specimens from grinding wheels.
Triaxial stresses and Elastic

Deformation
While a workpiece being deformed, it is usually
j
subjected to stresses in 3D (triaxial)
( )
In the elastic range, the generlized Hookes law
1
1 [ 1 ( 2 3 )];
E
1
2 [ 2 ( 1 3 )];
E
1
3 [ 3 ( 1 2 )].
E
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Triaxial Stresses and Plastic

Deformation
Yet, there is not theoretical way to correlate yielding
for 3D state of stress and Y
Empirical relationships that consistent with
experimental observation (like that the hydrostatic
pressure does not effect yielding)
Most popular criteria:
Maximum-Shear-Stress (Tresca Criterion)
Distortion-Energy Criterion (Von Mises Criterion)
[Dieter,
2001]
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Maximum-Shear Stress Criterion

Yielding will occur when the Maximum shear stress
within an element equals or exceeds a critical value
k
k is shear yield stress
When a sample yield in a simple tension test, and by
using Mohrs circle maximum shear is Y/2
As a result the shear yield stress k= Y/2
Using Mohrs circle we can get principal stresses
(normal stresses existing on a plane without any shear
stress components) 1, 2 ,3
The maximum shear stress criterion can be written as
max- min = Y
Distortion-Energy Criterion (Von

Mises)
Yielding will occur when the relation between the
principal
p p applied
pp stresses and the uniaxial yyield
stress Y is
(1-2)2 +(2-3)2 + (3-1)2 = 2Y2
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Example
Predict yielding stress for a state of pure shear using the
distortion energy criterion
Sol tion:
Solution:
(material in pure shear will yield when shear stress = yield

shear stress, = k
using Mohr circle
= 1= -3 , 2= 0
((1-2)2 +((2-3)2 + ((3-1)2 = 2Y2
(1-0)2 +(0-(-1))2 + (-1-1)2 = 2Y2
= 1 = Y/3
So according to the distortion energy the shear yield stress

k = Y/3 (Y is the yield stress in uniaxial tension)
Plane stress
A material is in Plane stress is a material that has

onlyy one of the three principal
p p stress equals
q to 0,,
1= 0 , 3= 0, 2=0
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Yield Criterion Comparison
FIGURE 2.38 Plane-stress diagrams for maximum-shear-stress and distortion-energy criteria;

note that 2 = 0.
Plane Stress
During the elastic deformatio n
1
1 [ 1 (0 3 )];
E
1
2 [0 ( 1 3 )];
E
1
3 [ 3 ( 1 0)].
E
stress strain relations for plastic deformatio n are given by
the flow rules ( levy Mises equations )
d
d 1 [ 1 ( 2 3 )];

d
d 2 [ 2 ( 1 3 )];

d
d 3 [ 3 ( 1 2 )];

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Effective Stress and Effective Stain
Effective means representative stress

According to the max imum shear stress criterion
1 3
and according to distortion energy criterion
1
[( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 ]1 / 2
2
compare effective stress to that during simple tension test !
the effective
ff strain is
2
( 1 3 )
3
And according to the distortion energy criterion

2
[( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 ]1 / 2
3
Plane Strain
A material is in Plane strain condition is when only one of its 3 axial
strains equals to 0
1 = 0,, 3 = 0,, 2 = 0
Apply 2 = 0 in levy-Mises eqn

To get
2= (1+ 3)/2
Using this equation in the distortion-energy criterion for the
case of plane-strain compression
1- 3 = 2Y/3
/3 ((at thee onset
o se ofo plastic
p s c
deformation)
1- 3 = 2Yf/3 (after plastic deformation
starts)
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Experimental Verification
Criteria discussed should agrees with experimental

observations
A test using thin-walled tube under internal pressure
and/or torsion is used.
It was found the Distortion-energy agrees better for
ductile materials than maximum-shear criterion
Thus in metalworking Distortion-energy is used
Maximum-shear criterion is used by designers for its
simplicity and because it predict yield at a lower
stress.
Volume strain
Volume only change during the elastic deformation

change in volume
volumes strain
Original volume
1 2
1 2 3 ( 1 2 3 )
E
1
knowing that mean stress m ( 1 2 3 )
3
E
then the bulk mod ulus m
3(1 2 )
0 0.5 in the elastic range
during plastic deformatio n
0.5 in the plastic range , thus
48 1 2 3 0 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir
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Comparison
During plastic deformation:
For tension 2 = 3 = - 1 /2
In torsion (plane strain) 1 = - 3 = /2
the effective strain in tension is
2 2 4 2
( 1 3 ) ( 1 1 ) 1
3 3 3 3
And for the torsion test according to the

distortion energy criterion
2
[( 1 0 ) 2 ( 0 ( 1 )) 2 ( 1 1 ) 2 ]1 / 2
3
2 1
1
49 3 3 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir
Work of Deformation
energy per volume (specific energy) spent in

uniaxial deformation is the area under the
true stress-true Strain curve
1 1
u d K n d
0 0
K n1
u Y1
n1
Y is the average flow stress
FIGURE 2.39 Schematic illustration of a
true-stress-true-strain curve showing the
for triaxial state of stress yield stress Y, the average flow stress Y, the
specific energy u1, and the flow stress Yf.
du 1 d 1 2 d 2 3 d 3
Work u volume
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Work of Deformation
In addition, we need to overcome friction and redundant work
utotal = uideal + ufriction + uredundant
Redundant
R d d t work: k workk spentt thatth t did nott change
h the
th shape
h off
the material.
Efficiency = ideal work/ total work
Work is converted into heat

(~ 90-95%)
If work is completely converted to heat,
then the rise in deformed material temperature
is, T= utotal/c
The faster the deformation is the lower losses
Adiabatic process may lead to incipient melting
Example 2.5, 2.7

Thin-walled spherical shell (plane stress, 1 = 2, 3 =
0)
Internal pressure P = 2 t / r
Plane stress does not mean plane strain
Since 1 = 2 then 1 = 2 (isotropic material)
Since volume of material is constant then 1 + 2 + 3
=0
then 1 + 1 + 3 = 0 , 2 1 = - 3
( t that
(note th t the
th sphere
h is
i increasing
i i iin
Size, but the volume of the shell is
Constant)
26

CHT 2 Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Metals: Objectives

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10/25/2010

1 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Supply the fundamentals for the manufacturing

Basic understanding of mathematical relations

Both for elastic and plastic deformation

Theories and criteria

2 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Forming: any process that changes the shape of a

Bulk deformation: workpiece has small surface area to

3 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

4 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

5 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Change of shape or deformation is measured by

In case of deformation by tension or compression,

for a and b: e = (l - lo /lo )

7 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Tensile test results: Load vs.

8 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

When a material deforms under a certain load, then

9 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

11 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

12 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

It indicate the extend to which a material can be

Reduction of Area = ((Ao Af)/ Ao) X100

13 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

True Stress & True Strain

Stress measure the material resistance to the applied load.

14 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

When to use true stress and true strain

Engineering values for the stress and strain are easier

15 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

True Stress - True Strain Curve

FIGURE 2.5 (a) True stress--true

flow stress Yf (the stress necessary to continue the

The relation between true stress and true strain are

T always increase due to strain hardening

Power Law Material Behavior

Relation between engineering

20 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Types of Stress-Strain curves

FIGURE 2.8 Schematic illustration of various types of

FIGURE 2.9 The effect of the strain -

FIGURE 2.10 Typical effects of temperature on engineering stress-

Temperature and Strain Rate Effects

FIGURE 2.10 The effect of strain rate on the

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Strain Rate Sensitivity

Stress-strain rate relation m

27 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Strain-Rate Sensitivity Effect on Total

Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure and

30 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

THE CORRECTED TRUE STRESS-

31 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Due to friction at the interface between the cylinder

Plain Strain Compression Test

33 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir

Bauschinger Effect (strain softening, work

FIGURE 2.18 Schematic illustration of the

The Disk Test

Brittle material in disk form

35 Dr. Numan Abu-Dheir