TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1FUNDAMENTALS OF RADAR DIFFRACTION .......................................................................................... 18

PULSE-MODULATED RADAR ..................................................................1
FACTORS AFFECTING DETECTION, DISPLAY, AND
A BASIC RADAR SYSTEM .........................................................................1
MEASUREMENT OF RADAR TARGETS ............................................. 18
COMPONENTS AND SUMMARY OF FUNCTIONS ................................1
RADAR SYSTEM CONSTANTS ................................................................2
Carrier Frequency ........................................................................................2
Pulse Repetition Rate ...................................................................................2
Pulse Length ................................................................................................3
Power Relation ............................................................................................3
FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS ...............................................................4
Power Supply ...............................................................................................4
Modulator ....................................................................................................4
Transmitter ...................................................................................................4
Transmitting and Receiving Antenna System .............................................4
Receiver .......................................................................................................6
Indicator .......................................................................................................7
CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR PROPAGATION ............................10
THE RADAR WAVE ..................................................................................10
REFRACTION ............................................................................................10
Refraction in Standard Atmosphere ...........................................................11
Super-refraction .........................................................................................11
Sub-refraction ............................................................................................11
Ducting ......................................................................................................11
Ducting Areas ............................................................................................12
THE RADAR BEAM ..................................................................................14
Beam Width ...............................................................................................14
EFFECT OF SEA SURFACE ON RADAR BEAM ...................................15
ATTENUATION ........................................................................................ 18
ECHO CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................... 18
FACTORS AFFECTING MAXIMUM RANGE ....................................... 18
Frequency .................................................................................................. 18
Peak Power ............................................................................................... 18
Pulse Length ............................................................................................. 18
Pulse Repetition Rate ................................................................................ 18
Beam Width .............................................................................................. 19
Target Characteristics ............................................................................... 19
Receiver Sensitivity .................................................................................. 19
Antenna Rotation Rate .............................................................................. 19
FACTORS AFFECTING MINIMUM RANGE ......................................... 19
Pulse Length ............................................................................................. 19
Sea Return ................................................................................................. 19
Side-Lobe Echoes ..................................................................................... 19
Vertical Beam Width ................................................................................ 19
FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE ACCURACY ...................................... 20
Fixed Error ................................................................................................ 20
Line Voltage ............................................................................................. 20
Frequency Drift ......................................................................................... 20
Calibration ................................................................................................ 20
Pip and VRM Alignment .......................................................................... 20
Range Scale ............................................................................................... 20
PPI Curvature ............................................................................................ 20
Radarscope Interpretation ......................................................................... 21
FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE RESOLUTION ................................... 21

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 Pulse Length ..............................................................................................21 CHAPTER 2RADAR OPERATION
Receiver Gain ............................................................................................21
CRT Spot Size ...........................................................................................21
RELATIVE AND TRUE MOTION DISPLAYS ..................................... 29
Range Scale ...............................................................................................23
RELATIVE MOTION RADAR ................................................................. 29
FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING ACCURACY ...................................23
Orientations of Relative Motion Display .................................................. 29
Horizontal Beam Width .............................................................................23
Stabilization .............................................................................................. 29
Target Size .................................................................................................23
TRUE MOTION RADAR .......................................................................... 29
Target Rate of Movement ..........................................................................23
Stabilization .............................................................................................. 30
Stabilization of Display .............................................................................23
Radarscope Persistence and Echo Trails .................................................. 30
Sweep Centering Error ...............................................................................23
Reset Requirements and Methods ............................................................. 30
Parallax Error .............................................................................................24
Modes of Operation .................................................................................. 31
Heading Flash Alignment ..........................................................................24
Types of True Motion Display .................................................................. 31
FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING RESOLUTION ................................24
Horizontal Beam Width .............................................................................24 PLOTTING AND MEASUREMENTS ON PPI ...................................... 32
Range of Targets ........................................................................................24 THE REFLECTION PLOTTER ................................................................. 32
CRT Spot Size ...........................................................................................25 Basic Reflection Plotter Designs .............................................................. 32
WEATHER ..................................................................................................25 Marking the Reflection Plotter ................................................................. 35
Wind ..........................................................................................................25 Cleanliness ................................................................................................ 35
Precipitation ...............................................................................................25 PLOTTING ON STABILIZED AND UNSTABILIZED DISPLAYS ....... 35
Unusual Propagation Conditions ...............................................................25 Stabilized North-Upward Display ............................................................ 35
WAVELENGTH ..........................................................................................25 Unstabilized Heading-Upward Display .................................................... 35
TARGET CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................26
RANGE AND BEARING MEASUREMENT ........................................... 36
Height ........................................................................................................26
Mechanical Bearing Cursor ...................................................................... 36
Size ............................................................................................................26
Variable Range Marker (Range Strobe) ................................................... 37
Aspect ........................................................................................................26
Electronic Bearing Cursor ........................................................................ 37
Shape ..........................................................................................................26
Interscan .................................................................................................... 38
Texture .......................................................................................................26
Off-Center Display ................................................................................... 39
Composition ...............................................................................................26
Expanded Center Display ......................................................................... 39

RADAR OPERATING CONTROLS ........................................................ 40

POWER CONTROLS ................................................................................. 40
Indicator Power Switch ............................................................................. 40

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 Antenna (Scanner) Power Switch ..............................................................40
Special Switches ........................................................................................40
PERFORMANCE CONTROLSINITIAL ADJUSTMENTS ..................40
Brilliance Control ......................................................................................40
Receiver Gain Control ...............................................................................41
Tuning Control ...........................................................................................41
PERFORMANCE CONTROLS-ADJUSTMENTS ACCORDING TO
OPERATING CONDITIONS .....................................................................42
Receiver Gain Control ...............................................................................42
Fast Time Constant (FTC) Switch .............................................................42
Rain Clutter Control ..................................................................................42
Sensitivity Time Control (STC) .................................................................43
Performance Monitor .................................................................................43
Pulse Lengths and Pulse Repetition Rate Controls ....................................45
LIGHTING AND BRIGHTNESS CONTROLS .........................................46
Reflection Plotter .......................................................................................46
Heading Flash ............................................................................................46
Electronic Bearing Cursor .........................................................................46
Fixed Range Markers .................................................................................47
Variable Range Marker ..............................................................................47
Panel Lighting ............................................................................................47
MEASUREMENT AND ALIGNMENT CONTROLS ...............................47
Range .........................................................................................................47
Bearing .......................................................................................................47
Sweep Centering ........................................................................................48
Center Expansion .......................................................................................48
Heading Flash Alignment ..........................................................................48
Range Calibration ......................................................................................48
TRUE MOTION CONTROLS ....................................................................49
Operating Mode .........................................................................................49
Normal Reset Control ................................................................................49
Delayed Reset Control ...............................................................................49
Manual Reset Control ............................................................................... 49
Manual Override Control .......................................................................... 49
Ships Speed Input Selector Control ......................................................... 49
Set and Drift Controls ............................................................................... 49
Speed and Course Made Good Controls ................................................... 49
Zero Speed Control ................................................................................... 49
BRIGHT DISPLAY RADARS AND THEIR OPERATING CONTROLS
50
RAYTHEON RADAR ................................................................................ 50
Direct Daylight Viewing Without Hood or Curtains ................................ 50
Video Processor Brightens Echos ............................................................. 50
Operating Controls .................................................................................... 52
Interference Rejection Reduces Noise, Improves Contrast, and Provides
Positive After-glow Trails ........................................................................ 53
Two-level Video Enhances Targets and Minimizes Clutter ..................... 53
Night time Operation ................................................................................ 53
High Average Power Improves Performance ........................................... 53
Sidelobe Suppression ................................................................................ 54
INTERSWITCHABLE 3 AND 10-CM SYSTEMS ................................... 54
Advantages of Switchable 3 and 10-cm Dual Radar Systems .................. 54
3-cm Offers Higher Resolution ................................................................. 54
Optional items ........................................................................................... 55
RAYCAS V Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA) ............................... 55
User Oriented Presentation ....................................................................... 55
Vessel Traffic Systems (VTS) .................................................................. 55
Reflection Plotter ...................................................................................... 55
River Radars ............................................................................................. 55
Performance Monitor ................................................................................ 56
Floating EBL Off-centering Kit ................................................................ 56
The Sperry MarineRASCAR 3400C ........................................................ 56
Optional Items ........................................................................................... 56
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 Circular Polarized Antenna (X-Band only) ...............................................56 CONSTRUCTING THE PLASTIC RULE USED WITH RAPID
Performance Monitor .................................................................................57 RADAR PLOTTING .................................................................................. 86
Target Tails ................................................................................................57
Sector Blanking Kit ...................................................................................57
Adaptive Interface ......................................................................................57 EXAMPLES
Navlines .....................................................................................................57 e-r-m TRIANGLE

CHAPTER 3COLLISION AVOIDANCE EXAMPLE 1DETERMINATION OF CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH

(CPA) ........................................................................... 88

RELATIVE MOTION .................................................................................61 EXAMPLE 2COURSE AND SPEED OF A RADAR CONTACT ......... 90
THE VECTOR TRIANGLE ........................................................................63
VECTOR EQUATIONS ..............................................................................65 EXAMPLE 3COURSE AND SPEED OF RADAR CONTACT BY THE
LADDER METHOD ................................................... 92
MANEUVERING BOARD .........................................................................68
MANEUVERING BOARD FORMAT .......................................................68 EXAMPLE 4COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA
PLOTTING ON MANEUVERING BOARD .............................................68 (Own ships speed is greater than that of other ship) ... 94

THE LOGARITHMIC TIME-SPEED-DISTANCE NOMOGRAM ......73 EXAMPLE 5COURSE TO PASS SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA
NAUTICAL SLIDE RULES .......................................................................74 (Own ships speed is less than that of other ship) ........ 96
GRAPHICAL RELATIVE MOTION SOLUTIONS ..................................74
RAPID RADAR PLOTTING ......................................................................75 EXAMPLE 6VERIFICATION OF FIXED OBJECTS OR RADAR
TRANSFER PLOTTING .............................................................................76 CONTACTS DEAD IN THE WATER ....................... 98
SELECTION OF PLOTTING TECHNIQUES ...........................................76
EXAMPLE 7AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS WITHOUT
RADAR PLOTTING SYMBOLS ...............................................................79 FIRST DETERMINING THE TRUE
COURSES AND SPEEDS OF THE CONTACTS .... 100
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS ON THE REFLECTION PLOTTER
RAPID RADAR PLOTTING .....................................................................81 EXAMPLE 8DETERMINING THE CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH
CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH ...........................................................81 FROM THE GEOGRAPHICAL PLOT .................... 102
TRUE COURSE AND SPEED OF CONTACT .........................................81
COURSE TO PASS AT SPECIFIED CPA .................................................82 ALTERNATIVE RADAR PLOTTING SYMBOLS ............................. 104
SPECIAL CASES ........................................................................................83 STANDARD PLOTTING PERIOD ......................................................... 105

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 SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE PLOTTING SYMBOLS
R-T-M TRIANGLE ...................................................................................108
ALTERNATIVEGRAPHICALSOLUTIONSONTHEREFLECTIONPLOTTER
110
CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH .........................................................110
TRUE COURSE AND SPEED OF CONTACT .......................................110
COURSE TO PASS AT SPECIFIED CPA ...............................................112
SPECIAL CASES ......................................................................................112
BLACK LIGHT ILLUMINATION ...........................................................113
EXAMPLES
R-T-M TRIANGLE
EXAMPLE 9DETERMINATION OF CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH
(CPA) ..........................................................................116
EXAMPLE 10COURSE AND SPEED OF A RADAR CONTACT ......118
EXAMPLE 15AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS WITHOUT
FIRST DETERMINING THE TRUE COURSES
AND SPEEDS OF THE CONTACTS ....................... 128
PRACTICAL SOLUTION FOR CPA IN TRUE MOTION MODE ... 130
RAPID PREDICTIONS OF THE EFFECTS OF EVASIVE ACTION
ON THE COMPASS DIRECTION OF
RELATIVE MOVEMENT WHEN USING A STABILIZED RELATIVE
MOTION DISPLAY ................................................................................. 137
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 137
CLASSIFICATION OF RADAR CONTACTS ....................................... 137
RULES FOR COURSE CHANGE ........................................................... 137
Up-the-scope ........................................................................................... 137
Down-the-scope ...................................................................................... 137
Across-the-scope ..................................................................................... 137
Speed of Relative Motion (SRM) ........................................................... 137
RULES FOR SPEED CHANGE .............................................................. 138
Reduced Speed ........................................................................................ 138
Increased Speed ...................................................................................... 138
APPLICATION ........................................................................................ 138

EXAMPLE 11COURSE AND SPEED OF RADAR CONTACT BY THE AUTOMATIC RADAR PLOTTING AIDS (ARPAS) ......................... 143
LADDER METHOD ..................................................120 COMPUTER GENERATED SYSTEMS ................................................. 143
Raytheon Collision Avoidance System (RAYCAS V) ........................... 143
EXAMPLE 12COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA Acquisition and Tracking ........................................................................ 143
(Own ships speed is greater than that of other ship) ..122 Vectors, True or Relative ........................................................................ 143
Target Trails ............................................................................................ 143
EXAMPLE 13COURSE TO PASS SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA Safe Limits Setting .................................................................................. 143
(Own ships speed is less than that of other ship) .......124 Trial Maneuvers ...................................................................................... 145
North Up/Course Up Scope Presentations .............................................. 145
EXAMPLE 14VERIFICATION OF FIXED OBJECTS OR RADAR Potential Collision Points (PCPs) ........................................................... 145
CONTACTS DEAD IN THE WATER ......................126 Auto Acquire ........................................................................................... 145

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 Acquisition Exclusion Boundaries (AEBs) ............................................146
Numerical Display ...................................................................................146
Data Entry ................................................................................................146
Warnings ..................................................................................................146
Electronic Bearing Line (EBL) ................................................................147
Targets .....................................................................................................147
Vectors .....................................................................................................147
Own Ship .................................................................................................147
Manual Control Panel ..............................................................................147
Raytheon Interswitched Radar Systems ..................................................147
RAYCAS V Accessories Programmed Fairways Option ........................147
Printer Interface .......................................................................................148
Performance Monitor ...............................................................................148
Using RAYCAS V With Other Radars ...................................................148
RAYPATH ARPA Operation Panel ........................................................148
Display Choices .......................................................................................148
Significant Operating Features ................................................................148
Acquisition and Tracking ........................................................................151
True and Relative Vectors .......................................................................151
Target Trails ............................................................................................151
Setting Safe Limits ..................................................................................151
Trial Maneuvers .......................................................................................151
Systems Test Mode ..................................................................................152
Interswitch Capability ..............................................................................152
Adaptive Interface Unit ...........................................................................152
THE SPERRY CASTTM IV COLLISION
AVOIDANCE SYSTEM ...........................................................................152
Patented PADTM Method ......................................................................152
Acquisition and Tracking ........................................................................152
VectorsTrue or Relative .......................................................................152
History Dots .............................................................................................154
PAD Display Mode ..................................................................................154
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Guard Rings ............................................................................................ 154
Trial Maneuvers (Simulation Mode) ...................................................... 154
BITE (Built-In Test Equipment) ............................................................. 155
CHAPTER 4RADAR NAVIGATION
RADARSCOPE INTERPRETATION .................................................... 157
LAND TARGETS ..................................................................................... 157
SHIP TARGETS ....................................................................................... 159
RADAR SHADOW .................................................................................. 159
BEAM WIDTH AND PULSE LENGTH DISTORTION ........................ 159
SUMMARY OF DISTORTIONS ............................................................. 159
RECOGNITION OF UNWANTED ECHOES AND
EFFECTS .................................................................................................. 161
Indirect (False) Echoes ........................................................................... 161
Side-lobe Effects ..................................................................................... 162
Multiple Echoes ...................................................................................... 162
Second-Trace (Multiple-Trace) Echoes .................................................. 163
Electronic Interference Effects ............................................................... 165
Blind and Shadow Sectors ...................................................................... 165
Spoking ................................................................................................... 166
Sectoring ................................................................................................. 166
Serrated Range Rings .............................................................................. 166
PPI Display Distortion ............................................................................ 166
Hour-Glass Effect ................................................................................... 166
Overhead Cable Effect ............................................................................ 166
AIDS TO RADAR NAVIGATION .......................................................... 168
RADAR REFLECTORS ........................................................................... 168
RADAR BEACONS ................................................................................. 168
Racon ...................................................................................................... 168
 Ramark .....................................................................................................169
RADAR FIXING METHODS ..................................................................171
RANGE AND BEARING TO A SINGLE OBJECT ................................171
TWO OR MORE BEARINGS ..................................................................171
TANGENT BEARINGS ............................................................................171
TWO OR MORE RANGES ......................................................................171
MIXED METHODS ..................................................................................172
PRECONSTRUCTION OF RANGE ARCS .............................................173
CONTOUR METHOD ..............................................................................173
IDENTIFYING A RADAR-INCONSPICUOUS OBJECT ...................175
FINDING COURSE AND SPEED MADE GOOD BY PARALLEL-
LINE CURSOR ..........................................................................................176
USE OF PARALLEL-LINE CURSOR FOR ANCHORING ................177
PARALLEL INDEXING ..........................................................................179
THE FRANKLIN CONTINUOUS RADAR PLOT TECHNIQUE ......192
TRUE MOTION RADAR RESET IN RESTRICTED WATERS ........194
RADAR DETECTION OF ICE ................................................................196
ICEBERGS ................................................................................................196
BERGY BITS ............................................................................................196
GROWLERS ..............................................................................................196
RADAR SETTINGS FOR RADARSCOPE PHOTOGRAPHY ...........197
NAVIGATIONAL PLANNING .............................................................. 197
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES ........................................................................ 198
Identifying Echoes .................................................................................. 198
Fixing ...................................................................................................... 199
CHAPTER 5VESSEL TRAFFIC SERVICES
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 201
BRIEF HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT .............................................. 201
VTS NEW YORK ..................................................................................... 202
VTS SAN FRANCISCO ........................................................................... 202
VTS PUGET SOUND ............................................................................... 202
VTS HOUSTON-GALVESTON .............................................................. 203
VTS PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND .......................................................... 203
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A. GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................ 205
APPENDIX B. THE IMPORTANCE OF RECORDING EXPERIENCE.. 209
APPENDIX C. RELATIVE MOTION PROBLEMS.................................. 210
APPENDIX D. BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................. 220
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