Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(2016)
1.0 Introduction
Rigid frames, rigid planar shear walls, coupled shear walls, and cores are usually employed when
forming the bracing system of a multi-storey building. These different units contribute to the overall
resistance of the system, but their contributions can be very different both in weight and in nature, so
it is essential for the designer to know their behaviour in order that optimum bracing system can be
produced (Zalka, 2013). The effect of wind becomes very influential as a building gets taller. Under
the action of wind, vertical structures are subjected to load regimes which are modelled as lateral
(horizontal) loads, and as a result, lateral deflections are induced in the building (sway). It is very
important to consider this behaviour in a tall building from both statics and dynamics perspective, in
order to guarantee the performance of the structure while in use.
Rigid frames are very significant in the structural behaviour of buildings. They possess all the three
basic stiffness characteristics, i.e., they have local bending stiffness, global bending stiffness and
shear stiffness. Under lateral loads, the behaviour of frames can be complex, because they undergo
both bending and shear deformations. Hence, the behaviour of frames in resisting lateral loads may be
characterised by three types of stiffnesses and corresponding deflection types which are;
Figure 1.1: (a) Shear deformation (b) Global bending (c) Local bending (Source: Zalka
(2013)
Shear deformation
Global bending
Local bending
It is however important that the wind loads are computed and applied correctly based on
environmental and other technical data available. In England, the codes for application of wind load
can be found in BS 6399-2:1997 and more recently, Eurocode 1 Part 4 EN 1991-1-4:2005 (E). Wind
loads are dynamic and fluctuate continuously in both magnitude and position. Some relatively flexible
structures, such as tall slender masts, towers and chimneys, suspension bridges and other cable-stayed
structures may be susceptible to dynamic excitation, in which case lateral deflections will be an
important consideration. However, the vast majority of buildings are sufficiently stiff for the
deflections to be small, in which case the structure may be designed as if it was static (Reynolds et al,
2008).
When wind acts on a building, the windward faces are subjected to direct positive pressure, the
magnitude of which cannot exceed the available kinetic energy of the wind. As the wind is deflected
around the sides and over the roof of the building, it is accelerated, thereby lowering the pressure
locally on the building surface, especially just downwind of the eaves, ridge and corners. These local
areas, where the acceleration of the flow is greatest, can experience very large wind suctions
(Reynolds et al, 2008). The surfaces of enclosed buildings are also subjected to internal pressures.
Values for both external and internal pressures are obtained by multiplying the dynamic pressure by
appropriate pressure coefficients and size effect factors. The overall force on a rectangular building is
determined from the normal forces on the windward-facing and leeward-facing surfaces, the frictional
drag forces on surfaces parallel to the direction of the wind, and a dynamic augmentation factor that
depends on the building height and type (Reynolds et al, 2008).
In this paper, an explicit wind load analysis is carried out for a 20 storey framed tall building
according to Eurocode. The analysis was carried out manually, and calculations to verify the
maximum deflection at the top of the building was carried out using the manual method proposed in
(Zalka, 2013). The result was compared with result gotten from finite element analysis using StaadPro
software.
Wind load analysis was carried out using the method described in EN 1991-1-4:2005 (E) while
manual lateral deflection analysis was carried out using the method described in Zalka (2013). The
structure is assumed to be located in an area with a basic wind speed of 40 m/s. The result from
manual analysis was compared with result from finite element analysis using Staad Pro.
The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity Vb,0 is the characteristic 10 minute mean wind
velocity irrespective of wind direction and time of the year, at 10 m above ground level in open-
country terrain with low vegetation such as grass, and with isolated obstacles with separations of at
least 20 obstacle heights.
Where:
Vb is the basic wind velocity defined as a function of wind direction and time of the year at 10m
above the ground of terrain category II
Vb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
Cdir is the directional factor (defined in the National Annex, but recommended value is 1.0)
Cseason is the season factor (defined in the National Annex, but recommended value is 1.0)
For the area and location of the building that we are considering;
The mean wind velocity Vm(z) at a height z above the terrain depends on the terrain roughness and
orography, and on the basic wind velocity, Vb, and should be determined using the expression below;
Where;
The terrain roughness factor accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the site of the
structure due to the height above the ground level and the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of
the structure in the wind direction considered. Terrain categories and parameters are shown in Table
2.0.
Where:
, = 0.05m (terrain category II)
Zmin is the minimum height
Zmax is to be taken as 200 m
. .
Kr = 0.19 = 0.19
.
Therefore;
Vm(60) = cr(z). co(z).Vb = 1.347 1.0 40 = 53.88 m/s
Table 2.0: Terrain Categories and parameters (Table 4.1 EN 1991-1-4:2005 (E)
The turbulence intensity Iv(z) at height z is defined as the standard deviation of the turbulence divided
by the mean wind velocity. The recommended rules for the determination of IV(z) are given in the
expressions below;
Where:
kI is the turbulence factor of which the value is provided in the National Annex but the recommended
value is 1.0
Co is the orography factor described above
Z0 is the roughness length described above.
For the building that we are considering, the wind turbulence factor at 60m above the ground level;
Iv(60) = = = = 0.14104
( ). .
The peak velocity pressure qp(z) at height z is given by the expression below;
qp(z) = [1 + 7.Iv(z)] . . ( ) = ( ).
Where:
is the air density, which depends on the altitude, temperature, and barometric pressure tobe expected
in the region during wind storms (recommended value is 1.25kg/m3)
( ) is the exposure factor given by;
( )
( )=
2
Therefore, qp(60m) = 3.6057 kN/m
Geometrical Properties
. .
Second moment of area of beams IB = = = 0.0140625 m4
. .
Second moment of area of columns IC = = = 0.0021333 m4
The part of the shear stiffness associated with the columns is;
.
KC = = 4 = 284444.443 kN
The shear stiffness of the frame work can now be defined as;
For the local bending stiffness (EI = EIC.r), the sum of the moment of areas of the columns should be
produced and multiplied by the reduction factor r. As the bays of the frame are identical, the second
moment of area of one column is simply multiplied by n and r.
Ig = ,
Where Ac,i is the cross-sectional area of the ith column, and ti is the distance of the ith column from the
centroid of the cross-sections.
The total second moment of area for the bending stiffness (If) is given by;
The parameters S, , and H are also needed for the calculation of the maximum deflection;
. .
S=1+ =1+ = 1.00008532 1.0
.
= = = = 1.8156
.
With the above auxiliary quantities, the maximum total deflection of the frame work can now be
calculated;
ymax = y(H) = + 1
.
yb(H) = = = 0.01136 m
.
.
ys(H) = = = 0.044889 m
. . . .
yi(H) = 1 = 1 =
.
0.00082413 m
JOINT COORDINATES
1 0 0 0; 2 6 0 0; 3 12 0 0; 4 18 0 0; 5 0 3 0; 6 6 3 0; 7 12 3 0; 8 18 3 0;
9 0 6 0; 10 6 6 0; 11 12 6 0; 12 18 6 0; 13 0 9 0; 14 6 9 0; 15 12 9 0;
16 18 9 0; 17 0 12 0; 18 6 12 0; 19 12 12 0; 20 18 12 0; 21 0 15 0; 22 6 15
0; 23 12 15 0; 24 18 15 0; 25 0 21 0; 26 6 21 0; 27 12 21 0; 28 18 21 0;
29 0 18 0; 30 6 18 0; 31 12 18 0; 32 18 18 0; 33 0 24 0; 34 6 24 0; 35 12
24 0;36 18 24 0; 37 0 27 0; 38 6 27 0; 39 12 27 0; 40 18 27 0; 41 0 30 0;
42 6 30 0;43 12 30 0; 44 18 30 0; 45 0 33 0; 46 6 33 0; 47 12 33 0; 48 18
33 0;49 0 36 0; 50 6 36 0; 51 12 36 0; 52 18 36 0; 53 0 39 0; 54 6 39 0; 55
12 39 0; 56 18 39 0; 57 0 42 0; 58 6 42 0; 59 12 42 0; 60 18 42 0; 61 0 45
0; 62 6 45 0; 63 12 45 0; 64 18 45 0; 65 0 48 0; 66 6 48 0; 67 12 48 0; 68
18 48 0; 69 0 51 0; 70 6 51 0; 71 12 51 0; 72 18 51 0; 73 0 54 0; 74 6 54
0; 75 12 54 0; 76 18 54 0; 77 0 57 0; 78 6 57 0; 79 12 57 0; 80 18 57 0; 81
0 60 0; 82 6 60 0; 83 12 60 0; 84 18 60 0;
MEMBER INCIDENCES
4 5 6; 5 6 7; 6 7 8; 7 9 10; 8 10 11; 9 11 12; 10 13 14; 11 14 15; 12 15
16; 13 17 18; 14 18 19; 15 19 20; 16 21 22; 17 22 23; 18 23 24; 19 25 26;
20 26 27; 21 27 28; 22 29 30; 23 30 31; 24 31 32; 25 33 34; 26 34 35; 27 35
36; 28 37 38; 29 38 39; 30 39 40; 31 41 42; 32 42 43; 33 43 44; 34 45 46;
35 46 47; 36 47 48; 37 49 50; 38 50 51; 39 51 52; 40 53 54; 41 54 55; 42 55
56; 43 57 58; 44 58 59; 45 59 60; 46 61 62; 47 62 63; 48 63 64; 49 65 66;
50 66 67; 51 67 68; 52 69 70; 53 70 71; 54 71 72; 55 73 74; 56 74 75; 57 75
76; 58 77 78; 59 78 79; 60 79 80; 61 81 82; 62 82 83; 63 83 84; 64 1 5; 65
5 9; 66 9 13; 67 13 17; 68 17 21; 69 21 29; 70 29 25; 71 25 33; 72 33 37;
73 37 41; 74 41 45; 75 45 49; 76 49 53; 77 53 57; 78 57 61; 79 61 65; 80 65
69; 81 69 73; 82 73 77; 83 77 81; 84 2 6; 85 6 10; 86 10 14; 87 14 18; 88
18 22; 89 22 30; 90 30 26; 91 26 34; 92 34 38; 93 38 42; 94 42 46; 95 46
50; 96 50 54; 97 54 58; 98 58 62; 99 62 66; 100 66 70; 101 70 74; 102 74
78; 103 78 82; 104 3 7; 105 7 11; 106 11 15; 107 15 19; 108 19 23; 109 23
31; 110 31 27; 111 27 35; 112 35 39; 113 39 43; 114 43 47; 115 47 51; 116
51 55; 117 55 59; 118 59 63; 119 63 67; 120 67 71; 121 71 75; 122 75 79;
123 79 83; 124 4 8; 125 8 12; 126 12 16; 127 16 20; 128 20 24; 129 24 32;
130 32 28; 131 28 36; 132 36 40; 133 40 44; 134 44 48; 135 48 52; 136 52
56; 137 56 60; 138 60 64; 139 64 68; 140 68 72; 141 72 76; 142 76 80; 143
80 84;
Figure 1.4: Deflection profile of the frame under the action wind load
5.0 Conclusion
The procedure and formular presented by Zakla (2013) for the deflection of rigid frames is very
simple and expressive, identifying three distinctive parts: bending mode, shear mode and their
interaction. The method can be conveniently employed for investigating the deflection in multi-storey
and generally yields a lower bound solution from finite element analysis. From the present study, a
difference of 8.135% was observed from finite element analysis and the manual method presented.
References
Zalka K.A (2013): Structural Analysis of Regular Multi-Storey Buildings. CRC Press. Taylor &
Francis Group. ISBN-13: 978-0-203-84094-8
Reynolds C.E., Steedman J.C., Threlfall J.A. (2008): Reynolds Reinforced Concrete Designers
Handbook (11th Edition). Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN-I3: 978-0-203-08775-6
Eurocode 1 Part 4 (2005): Actions on structures Part 14: General actions Wind actions