HEIDEL - The Necessary and The Contingent

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UNIVERSITY OF
UmVERSITY CONTRIBUTIONS TO
CHICAGO CONTRIBUTIONS
OF CHICAGO PHILOSOPHY
TO PHILOSOPHY
No.1L
No. II.
[FROM the
[from SEMINAR in
THE seminar m logic]
LOGIC]
C

THE NECESSARY AND

THE NECESSARY THE CONTINGENT
AND THE CONTINGENT
IN
IN THE
THE
ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM
ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM
BY
BY
WILLIAM ARTHUR HEIDEL,
HEIDEL, PH.D.,
Ph.D.,
(DOCENT in
(docent PHILOSOPHY in
IH philosophy UNIVERSITY of
THE university
IN the CHICAGO)
OF Chicago)
CHICAGO
an: danibnsitg of @bicago 33:25::
1896
1896
EE


THE NECESSARY ANDTHE

AND "THE CONTINGENT
IN THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN SYSTEM.
ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM/
The distinctions
The distinctions taken
taken between
between the necessary and
the necessary and the
the contingent,
contingent,
in philosophical
in discussion
philosophical discussion no less than
no less than in common life,
in common are ordi-
life, are ordi-
narily supposed
narily supposed to to be
be so denitive and
so definitive are permitted
and are permitted soso deeply
deeply to
to
inuence our
influence our conceptions
conceptions thatthat it seems well
it seems well worth ones while
worth one's while to
to
examine them
examine them in their origin.
in their origin. And And thethe Aristotelian
Aristotelian system' will
system2 will
best our purpose
serve our
best serve purpose as amtm vile
as aa corpus vile for very obvious
for very reasons. In
obvious reasons. In
the first
the rst place, Aristotle is
place, Aristotle the earliest
is the earliest systematic
systematic philosopher
philosopher who who
essayed to
essayed to treat
treat consistently
consistently of of all
all the greater problems
the greater problems of life and
of life and
thought, and whose
thought, and whose works
works remain
remain to to be studied. His
be studied. His method,
method, too,
too,
was such
was such that, as he
standing as
that, standing did just
he did on the
just on verge gjngrggali,
the verge of form alism,
the definitions
the denitions which he attempted
which he still bear
attempted still denite traces
bear definite of the
traces of th&
purely functional meaning
purely functional of those
meaning of those terms, while his
terms, while his formulation
formulation of
of
their significance
their has led
signicance has led naturally
naturally to solidication as
their solidification
to their as objective
objective
in the
facts in
facts world.
the world. For Aristotle
For was wont
Aristotle was wont to to preface his own
preface his own con-
con-
clusions
clusions by inquiring, rather
by inquiring, supercially to
rather superficially to be sure, into
be sure, into thethe psy-
psy-
chology of
chology of the conceptions in
the conceptions in question
question; yet,
;
yet, while
while the inadequacy
the inadequacy
his psychology
of his
of psychology is now admitted
is now admitted on on all
all hands, the inferences
hands, the inferences as as
fact which
to fact
to which he deduced therefrom
he deduced therefrom are are even now in
even now in part accepted
part accepted
as conclusive.
as conclusive. When
When one one reflects upon it
reects upon this state
it this of the
state of the question
question
one as
strikes one
strikes as absurd.
absurd. For For this reason there
this reason appears to
there appears to be the
be the
greater justication
greater an analysis
for an
justification for analysis ofof the
the presuppositions
presuppositions on which
on which
conceptions rest.
these conceptions
these rest. If If one grants their
one grants validity, the
their validity, conclusions
the conclusions
and the
and the resultant
resultant contradictions
contradictions of of the system must
the system must be accepted as
be accepted as
ultimate. But
ultimate. But II am
am convinced
convinced thatthat Aristotle's
Aristotles presuppositions
presuppositions and and
his real problems
his real problems were wholly unreconcilable
were wholly unreconcilable with with each
each other, and
other, and
1Professor Dewey's
'Professor Deweys article
article on
on "The
The Superstition of Necessity
Superstition of
Necessity" in T11: Monist,
in The Manist,
III,362379, has
III, 362-379, given aa very
has given acute analysis
very acute of Necessity,
analysis of which II take
Necessity, which as my point
take as point
of departure.
of departure.
'I say "the
21 say Aristotelian system"
Ill: Aristotelian than "Aristotle"
rather than
system rather because I
Aristotle, because not wish
do not
I do wish
to discuss
here to
here discuss the
the genuineness of some
genuineness of of the
some of the works which II shall
works which shall have to
have to cite.
cite.
This
This the more
is the
is more justiable
justifiable because, even if
because, even if spurious,
spurious, they
they merely Aris-
develop Aris-
merely develop
totles position.
totle's position.

4
4 THE NECESSARY CONTINGENT
NECESSARY AND THE CONTINGENT
so his
SO his contradictions serve
contradictions serve all the better
all the to point
better to point out direction
the direction
out the
in
in which their
which solution
their solution lay.
lay.
Plato
Plato made the
made the acute observation that
acute observation that surprise
surprise is the beginning
is the beginning
of philosophy,
of philosophy, and and Aristotle appropriated and
Aristotle appropriated and further
further applied the
applied the
thought. The
thought.' sweep of
full sweep
The full of thethe truth contained in
truth contained words is
these words
in these is
vastly greater,
vastly greater, however,
however, than than theythey knew.
knew. The feeling of
The feeling wonder is
of wonder is
indeed the
indeed the point
point of of departure
departure for for philosophy;
philosophy but ; what precisely
but what precisely
does it
does mean ?? It
it mean It indicates
indicates first rst of all that
of all that an old habit
an old habit hashas been
been
broken up.
broken up. Old conceptions, like the proverbial old bottles, have
Old conceptions, like the proverbial old bottles, have
become
become so so surcharged
surcharged with with thethe newnew winewine of of meaning
meaning that they have
that they have
burst.
burst. But to
But say this
to say this isis to describe the
to describe the phenomenon
phenomenon merely merely as as Aa
brute without according
fact without
brute fact according it any symbolic
it any symbolic value.value. This This statestate ofof
surprise must
surprise acquire an
must acquire an ideal
ideal worth,
worth, an indicative function,
an indicative function, if if itit is
is
really to
really to become
become the the parent
parent of of philosophy.
philosophy. Briefly, Briey, then,
then, we may
we may
,say:
say : inazkates the
surprise indicates
surprise tlze need
need of of reconstructing
retomtrudz'ng our supposed fads.
our supposed facts.
And this
And statement is
this statement to be
is to taken at
be taken at its full value,
its full with all
value, with all its impli-
its impli-
cations, if
cations, if philosophy
philosophy is to be
is to achieved.
be achieved. '
then, as
Eirst, then,
First, as to what is
to what implied in
is implied this demand
in this demand for recon
for aa recon-
struction of
struction of fact.
fact. Most assuredly, what
Most assuredly, what is required is
is required not the
is not mere
the mere
multiplication of
multiplication of fads.
facts. Multiplication of
Multiplication of facts
facts will serve to
will serve diver-
to diver-
sify the world,
sify the world, but not to
but not to unify
unify it; it; and unication
and unification of of meaning
meaning is is
the goal
the goal of of philosophy.
philosophy. What What we we need,
need, therefore,
therefore, is is not
not so so much
much
more facts
more facts as as aa richer
richer fact.fact. Truth, suppose, and
Truth, II suppose, reality are
and reality syn-
are syn-
onymous, and
onymous, and Truth
Truth is is not many, but
not many, but one.
one. Truth
Truth and and reality
reality areare
present,
present, if anywhere, in
if anywhere, concrete experience
in concrete experience; and ; and through
through the the func-
func-
tional (not abstract)
tional (not abstract) definition
denition of this concrete
of this experience aa richer,
concrete experience richer,
but still unitary
but still unitary and concrete reality
and concrete reality is attained in
is attained in experience.
experience. The The
falsity, the
falsity, the abstraction,
abstraction, resultsresults from from the multiplying of
the multiplying of words,
words,aa
darkening of
darkening of counsel
counsel with words without
with words knowledge. Why,
without knowledge. Why, then,
then,
multiplicity, if
this multiplicity,
this if multiplicity
multiplicity is is false
false?? The The true multiplicity is
true multiplicity is
that of
that of division,
division, not that of
not that multiplication. It
of, multiplication. comes about
It comes about natu-
natu-
rally and
rally legitimately in
and legitimately denition of
the definition
in the experience, just
of experience, and
as, and
just as,
for the
for the samesame purpose
purpose as, as, in scientic experimentation.
in scientific experimentation. In In order
order
that we
that we maymay get get control
control of of thethe fact,
fact, in order that
in order that wewe maymay makemake it it
symbolical or
symbolical or serviceable,
serviceable, it it needs
needs to to be made out
be made out inin detail
detail as as to
to its
its
value. We have,
value. therefore, to
have, therefore, single out
to single this phase
out this phase and that,
and that,these these
" Vide Plato, Theaetetus,

Vida Plato, 155 D,
T/zeaelelus, 155 D, and Zeller, II,
and Zeller, II, A, 610, n.
A, 6io, u. 3; Aristotle, Metaph.,
3; Aristotle, Melap/t"
982 bb 12:
982 12 : iib. yap t&
6nd. yip Tb Saviiiêiv oi (itiffpuiroi
aundgew 0! dupwrroc KalKai vvv Kai t6
vv Kal rb irpurov pEavro <t>i.\o(70(t>av.
wprov ripârro Lhoosfm

IN THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN THE SYSTEM
ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM 5
5
phases.
phases to to bebe understood
understood as as the
the construction
construction of selecting mind
of selecting mind under
under
the direction
the direction of of interest,
interest,and and to pply to
to apply each certain
to each denite
certain definite
according to
tests, according
tests, to the
the endend which
which for the time
for the time we have in
we have view. When
in view. When
we have finished
we have nished our survey of
our survey of the fact thus
the fact analyzed and
thus analyzed and havehave defi-
de-
nitely noted
nitely noted it as answering
it as answering to such'and
to such such particular
and such particular ends, ends, wewe
hasten to
hasten recompound it
to recompound it inin the completer definition.
the completer denition. To To each
each of
of
these phases
these phases or or aspects,
aspects, thus abstracted from
thus abstracted from the concrete whole
the concrete whole for
for
practical purposes
practical purposes in the definition
in the denition of of fact
fact in terms of
in terms means and
of means and end,
end,
we name; and after
apply a name and after we have prattimlly
we apply a ; we have restored
practically restored the unity the in
unity in
our enriched experience of fact, our functionally
our enriched experience of fact, our functionally erected abstractions erected abstractions
remain, as
remain, as fossilized
fossilized in the words,
in the words, to haunt us
to haunt us asas so
so many things
many "things"
or as
or as "qualities"
qualities which which merely inhere in
merely "inhere" them. The
in them. mi'nds
The mind's
economy is
economy such that
is such that whenwhen it it has once found
has once found an an "open sesame"
open sesame"
which to
with which
with to unlock
unlock one one of lifes multitudiuous
of life's multitudinous doors, doors, it it tends
tends toto
hold it
hold it fast and to
fast and use it
to use on all
it on all occasions
occasions rather than trust
rather than trust to nding
to finding
it again
it again on on occasion.
occasion.
But we
But we must
must insist
insist that this multiplication
that this multiplication of words and
of words and soso of
of
things is
"things" is purely
purely a a practical device for
practical device practical
fOr practicalnot theoretical
not theoretical
ends, and
ends, and is, therefore, justied
is, therefore, justified only only of its children;
of its children justied,
;
justified, that is,
that is,
only in
only the service
in the service it actually performs
it actually performs in in the enrichment of
the enrichment of experience.
experience.
Yet this practical
Yet this enrichment results
practical enrichment results in embarrassment,
theoretical embarrassment,
in theoretical
if it
if merely erects
it merely erects newnew facts
facts instead
instead of of reconstructing
reconstructing the the one fact.
one fact.^
From this
From this point
point of of view
view we we maymay judge
judge the folly of
the folly of' that
that inaneinane prac-
prac-
which endeavors
tice which
tice endeavors to to cashier
cashier every every new new experience
experience by merely
by merely
naming it.
naming sophisticated friend,
it. My sophisticated friend, for for example,
example, who who dashed
dashed my my
youthful rapture
youthful rapture at at thethe sight
sight of of anan extraordinary
extraordinary meteorological
meteorological
phenomenon by
phenomenon calmly labeling
by calmly labeling it sun-dogs rendered
it "sun-dogs" rendered me thereby,
me thereby,
if
if possible, somewhat
possible, somewhat less
less a
a philosopher without making
philosopher without making me me aa better
better
scientist. If
scientist. If he could have
he could have shown
shown me me how1mm those four seeming
those four seeming suns suns
were one,
were one, and
and 12070
how the
the presence
presence of
of ice-crystals
ice-crystals in
in the
the atmosphere
atmosphere
was just
was just thethe meaning
meaning of of that gorgeous pageantry
that gorgeous pageantry of rival parhe'lia
of rival parhelia
and broken
and broken solar solar halos,
halos, he might have
he might have accompJished
accomplished something something
more worthy
more worthy of of his knowledge.
vaunted knowledge.
his vaunted
' Something
Something like to this
like to this is
is indicated
indicated in Royces T
in Royce's Spirit anodem
he Spirit
The Plzilosop/zy.
of Modern Philosophy.
See particularly
See particularly the example drawn
the example from the
drawn from experience of
the experience St. Paul
of St. Paul on Malta,
on Malta,
z'z'du p. 402.
ibid., p. 402. The case well
The case well admits of further
admits of further analysis. If Paul's
analysis. If Pauls companions had
companions had
solved the
solved the question
question suggested
suggested by the natives
by the natives calling him &a god,
calling him would have
they would
god, they have
fully the
stated fully
stated the relation of
relation of man to
man to God
God in the universe
in the thus have
and thus
universe and solved the
have solved the
problem of religion
problem of religion by realizing it.
by realizing it.

6
6 THE NECESSARY
If, then,
If, surprise is
then, surprise thus the
is thus the beginning
beginning of of philosophy,
philosophy, its goal
its goal
must be
must the elimination
be the elimination ofof surprise
surprise: for
for this as we
feeling, as
this feeling,: have
we have
indicates the
seen, indicates
seen, need of
the need of reconstructing
reconstructing the fact. And this
the fact. this is
is
probably
probably just Aristotle intended
what Aristotle
just what intended by that this
saying that
by saying state must
this state must
into its
revert into
revert its opposite
opposite in such wise
in such wise that wonder would
that wonder would be excited
be excited
if such were
/such were not the fact,
not the that is,
fact, that is, if further reconstruction were
if aa further reconstruction were
required.
required.' He states
He states thisthis problem
problem in terms of
in terms of possibility:
possibility : if this
if this
hypotenuse were commensurahlc
hypotenuse were commensurable with with the
the sides
sides of
of the
the triangle, aa
triangle, if
if
common unit could

common unit could be found be found for
for them
them in
in terms
terms of
of which
which it could be
it could be
directly measured.
directly measured. Even
Even here
here then
then the
the implication
implication is
is that
that we
we have
have
attained aa necessary
attained necessary truth, which could
truth, which could notnot be otherwise.2 It
hc otherwise^ how-
is, how-
It is,
ever, sufficiently
ever, suiciently clear clear at at the outset that
the outset nothing is
that nothing gained by
is gained by
denominating it
denominating necessary truth
it aa necessary over and
truth over and aboveabove what what is meant by
is meant by
stating it
stating to be
it to be thethe truth.
truth. When When we we have attained the
have attained the complete
complete
denition of
definition of the
the truth,
truth, it it is
is clear
clear that everything inconsistent
that everything inconsistent with with
false: and
is false
it is
it and then
: then we say with
we say with perfect assurance that
perfect assurance nothing else
that nothing else
can be
can he truth, since this
truth, since this is is precisely
precisely the the truth.
truth. Every Every stagestage short
short of of
this of
this completed description
of completed description reveals reveals its functional value
its functional value in in thethe
elasticity or
elasticity or ambiguity
ambiguity of of its reference; it
its reference; it characterizes
characterizes itself itself as as
relatively well
opinion relatively
opinion well or or ill founded. When
ill founded. knowledge is
When knowledge is achieved,
achieved,
when the
when fact is
the fact fully made
is fully made out out in all its
in all its details,
details, it merely is
it merely is the
the
truth before
truth; ; before its attainment this
its attainment this or or that denition or
that definition or statement
statement
regarding it
regarding it may
may or or maymay notnot bebe true:
true as : as certainty
certainty grows grows upon upon our our
while as
minds, wh'ile
minds, as yetyet we we have
have not not quite adjusted all
quite adjusted the elements
all the elements
which go
which go to make up
to make up thethe whole,
whole, we we say say it must be
it must so. Hence
he so. Hence
contingent and
"contingent" necessary truths
and "necessary" truths relate
relate not not to objective fact
to objective fact at at
all, but
all, merely register
but merely register the the degrees
degrees of adjustment in
of adjustment our judgments
in our judgments
of fact
of fact previous
previous to settling down
their settling
to their down into into aa simple
simple categorical
categorical
assertion. To
assertion. say, therefore,
To say, therefore, that that opinion
opinion or or empirical
empirical experience
experience
attains the
attains the "that,"
that, while while scientific knowledge gives
scientic knowledge gives the why, is
the "why," to
is to
utter aa partial
utter partial truthtruth as viewed from
as viewed from the the subjective
subjective side, side, but but is is
'Aristotle, Afifto/ji.,
'Aristotle, Metaph, 9830 983a 12 ff.,esp. 17:
12 ff., esp. 17: (SEE Bels
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IN THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN SYSTEM
7
wholly
wholly false when the
false when the distinction
distinction is objectied. That
is objectified. That is is to say, the
to say, the
that and
"that" and the "why"the are more
why are more truly applicable to the degrees
truly applicable to the degrees o of
deliberate assent than to characteristics
deliberate assent than to characteristics of outward things. of outward things. Opinion Opinion
does indeed
does indeed apprehend
apprehend aa fact, fact, but only an
but only an incomplete
incomplete and and hypo-hypo-
thetical one
thetical one; knowledge
; knowledge merely merely goes goes on on to state it
to state as aa fact
it as more
fact more
fully
fully dened
defined and
and assured.
assured. Aristotle
Aristotle draws
draws the
the same
same distinction
distinction
between sensation and
between sensation and intellection,'
intellection,x but too, holds
this, too,
but this, holds good good onlyonly
with the
with same limitations,
the same limitations, namely,namely, as as expressing
expressing the the truth
truth that the
that the
percept,
percept, as as well
well as as the
the concept,
concept, has has meaning
meaning only only in in soso far forth as
far forth as
it is
it symbolical, that
is symbolical, that is is to say, when
to say, when it it becomes
becomes a a means
means to to anan end.
end.
In its
In implication that
its implication that the the sensation
sensation is itself aa construct,
not itself
is not construct, and and asas
such possessed
such possessed of of aa meaning
meaning or or reference,
reference, it it is radically false.
is radically false. To To be
be
sure Aristotle
sure Aristotle inclines
inclines to even the
view even
to view the concepts, especially the
concepts, especially more
the more
generic, as
generic, as mere
mere facts facts there once for
there once for all, which the
all, which the mindmind has has nono
power
power to transcend because
to transcend because it merely intuits
it merely intuits them
them ; and
;
and so so he comes
he comes
to regard
to regard them, despite his
them, despite his opposition
opposition to to realism,
realism, as as opposed
opposed to to
concrete fact.
concrete fact.
To return
To return to to ourour starting
starting point point afterafter this apparent digression
this apparent digression: :
I have
I have said above that
said above that Aristotle's
Aristotles presuppositions
presuppositions were were fundament-
fundament-
allyin
ally contradiction with
in contradiction with hishis real
real problems.
problems. In In order
order to to make
make clearclear
the meaning
the meaning of of this
this assertion,
assertion, as as well
well as as to to prepare
prepare the the way way for
for aa
somewhat detailed
somewhat detailed examination of examination of the
the Aristotelian
Aristotelian system, will
system, it
it will
perhaps be
perhaps be well
well to
to sketch
sketch in
in as
as few
few words
words as
as possible
possible the
the preceding
preceding
course of
course Greek thought
of Greek thought which which defined
dened and and conditioned
conditioned the direc-
the direc-
tion of
tion of the
the further advance.
further advance.
Greek philosophy
Greek philosophy began began with with speculation
speculation rather rather than than with with
experiment. It
experiment. It may facilitate the
may facilitate the taking
taking aa comprehensive
comprehensive view view ifif
we state
we state thethe progress
progress in logical terms
in logical terms and and employ
employ the scheme of
the scheme of
the judgment.
the judgment. In this
In this formform the subject will
the subject will be be thethe world world or or
things;
" things " ; the predicate
the predicate will will be represented by
be represented by the the a.pyy\,dvaj, oror
principle;
principle; and and the copula will
the copula will be be thethe method
method of mediation by
of mediation by
which you
which you passpass from subject to
from subject to predicate
predicate or or from
from predicate
predicate to to
subject. It
subject. It is
is clear that in
clear that logical terms
in logical terms the former movement
the former movement is is
that of
that inductiom'and
of induction, and the latter that
the latter that ofof deduction.
deduction. In In thethe practical:
practical^
sphere, or
sphere, or rather
rather in in its inner meaning,
true inner
its true induction is
meaning, induction only the
is only the
process
process of setting up
of setting up an an endend byby a a provisional
provisional survey survey of of the means,
the means,
such wise
in such
in that the
wise that quality abstracted
the quality abstracted and and expressed
expressed in in thethe predi-
predi'
See
' See Anal. Post., I,
Anal. Post., 31.
I, 31.

8
8 THE NECESSARY AND THE CONTINGENT
is precisely
cate is
cate precisely thatthat mark
mark whichwhich youyou areare interested
interested to realize in
to realize the
in the
or the
fact, or
fact, subject. Deduction,
the subject. Deduction, then then in in turn,
turn, isis the
the reversal
reversal of of the
the
process,
process, inin that you begin
that you begin with with thethe endend as accomplished or
as accomplished or con-
con
ceived as
ceived accomplished, and
as accomplished, and define
dene the means in
the means terms of
in terms of it;
it; see, in
see, in
other words,
other whether this
words, whether this particular
particular is means to
is aa means to that generic end.
that generic end.
Thus viewed,
Thus viewed, it it is at once
is at apparent that
once apparent that the movement pursued
the movement pursued by by
the Milesians,
the Milesians, the the Pythagoreans,
Pythagoreans, and and thethe Eleatics,
Eleatics, is is that of a hasty
that of a hasty
induction. Very
induction. Very little effort is
little effort made to
is made elaborate the
to elaborate copula or
the copula or the
the
problem
problem of the cosmic
of the cosmic process.
process.' It is
It even quite possible that
is even quite possible that
Anaximenes was
Anaximenes was the
the first
rst to assert that
to assert this process
that this process was was that
that of of con-
con
densation and and even
rarefaction, and even here we
densation and rarefaction, here we are
are dismissed
dismissed when
when we
we
sattain what were later
-attain what were later called the called the elements.
"elements." Anaximander,
Anaximander,
seems to
indeed, seems
indeed, mark the
to mark the dawning
dawning consciousness
consciousness of of aa deeper
deeper
problem
problem for for philosophy;
philosophy; that, namely, of
that, namely, attaining aa predicate
of attaining predicate from from
.which
which it is possible
it is possible to explain or
to explain acrz'vc/th
or derive subject. His
the subject. dwapov,
His oTrapov,
therefore,
therefore, andand thethe process
process of cxxptvwaz are
of cKKpivea-Oai are rightly
rightly to to be considered
be considered
as among the
as among the first truly significant
rst truly signicant problems
problems of of philosophy;
philosophy for ; for
they point
they point out need of
the need
out the of aa fruitful method of
fruitful method deduction. It
of deduction. at
is at
It is
least interesting,
least interesting, and and perhaps
perhaps not wholly wanting
not wholly wanting in deeper sug-
in deeper sug-
gestiveness, that
gestiveness, that thethe first
rst consciousness
consciousness of demand should
this demand
of this should
have been
have accompanied by
been accompanied by the original though
the original extremely meager
though extremely meager
sketch of
sketch of organic
organic evolution,
evolution, which which applies
applies just just this method of
this method of
deduction.z As
deduction.'' As for the Pythagoreans,
for the Pythagoreans, it it is needless to
is needless that
insist that
to insist
they made
they made no no serious effort to
serious effort explain or
to explain or derive things, and
derive "things," and the the
Eleatics employed
Eleatics employed dialectic, copula, only
their copula,
dialectic, their only asas aa means
means to explain
to explain
away or
away or annihilate
annihilate the subject, which
the subject, which was was too innitely rich
too infinitely rich to to bebe
accounted for
accounted for by the blank
by the conception of
blank conception immovable space-filling
of immovable space-lling
matter.
matter.
Anaxagoras, and
Empedocles, Anaxagoras,
Empedocles, and the
the Atomists
Atomists occupyoccupy much much the the
same logical
same logical position
position as Anaximander. They
as Anaximander. address themselves
They address themselves
Windelband, pp.
I Windelband,
47 f.,
pp. 47 Engl. Transl.,
ff., Engl. has brought
Transl., has the conceptions
together the
brought together conceptions
which relate
which to the
relate to the copula in section
copula in 5, under
section 5, the caption
under the of Cosmic
Conceptions of
caption "Conceptions Cosmic
Processes.
Processes." .
9
= If Anaximander
Anaximander really
If the first
was the
really was rst to employ dpxi}
to employ as aa philosophical
dpxij as term
philosophical term
(cf. Zeller,
{cf. 15, p.
Zeller, Is, 2) this
n. 2)
217, n.
p. 217, fact would
this fact fall in
would fall in verywell
verywell with
with his logical position.
his logical position.
At all
At events it
all events it is
is clear that Thales
clear that Thales was far more
was far interested in
more interested the question
in the question "What
What
is the
H the world?"
world ? than in the
than in the problem How is
problem "/ûta is the
the v/OTld water ?
world waler? " This very
This fact
very fact
marks the
marks the abrupt
abrupt breaking
breaking away from the
away from the merely
merely temporal
temporal d/>xi)
dpx asas it was set
it was forth
set forth
in the cosmogonies.
in the cosmogonies.

;
ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM
IN THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN SYSTEM 9
9
equally to
equally the working
to the working out of the
out of the predicate and to
predicate and the derivation
to the derivation
from it
from it of subject. But
the subject.
of the they allow
as they
But as only for
^llow only quantitativeL
for quantitativeL
they cannot
change they
change fully for
account fully
cannot account for things as they
things as they appear in per-
appear in per-
consequently they
and consequently
ception, and
ception, are driven
they are driven to
to denounce sense as
denounce sense as
iallacious.
fallacious. Thus come in
they come
Thus they the end
in the end to agree with
to agree the Eleatics
with the Eleatics;
the
the inductive
inductive movement is
movement assured, but
is assured, the deductive
but the lags.
deductive lags.
Heraclitus, however,
Heraclitus, holds aa place
however, holds apart;; for
place apart for in his system
in his the
system the -
-
copula, the
copula, cosmic process,
the cosmic has absorbed
process, has absorbed all that
all that is is real. Subject
real. Subject
and predicate,
and predicate, takentaken as as permanent entities, both
permanent entities, completely dis-
both completely dis-
appear, and
appear, and m in their room stands
their room stands the the eternal
eternal lawlaw of change. This,_
of change. This,__
only reality,
his only
his reality, he he calls eipapumy, Fate,
calls dfiapitxvri, or Logos.'
Fate, or Logos. Amid Amid all all the
the
endless fiux
endless ux of of things
things there runs an
there runs adamantine thread
an adamantine thread of of rationality,
rationality,
when he
and when
and he calls
calls this
this Fate,
Fate, it it is sufciently clear
is sufficiently that necessity
clear that necessity
stands with
stands with him him only only for
for the insistent Is
the insistent dees the
which defies
"Is" which the vanity
vanity
of nothingness.
of nothingness. And And when
when the the Atomists
Atomists assert
assert that
that thethe tumultuous
tumultuous
motion of
motion of the
the atoms
atoms in the void
in the void is regulated by
is regulated by dvayKr/, expres-
this expres-
awatyxn, this
means precisely
sion means
sion precisely what what has has beenbeen said above: it
said above : marks the
it marks the
assurance of
growing assurance
growing deniteness with
of definiteness with aa residue
residue of of the
the unexplained.
unexplained.
This residuum is
This residuum indeed taken
is indeed taken account
account of in the
of in same breath,
the same breath, in in the
the
confession of tumultuous or or "irregular"
irregular in their
_
confession something "tumultuous"
of something in their
Anaxagoras is
motion. Anaxagoras
motion. doubtless to
is doubtless to be regarded as
be regarded as the
the originator
originator _
of conscious
of teleology in
conscious teleology' Greek thought,
in Greek thought, andand to to him
him we we must look
must look
as the
as source of
the source of that
that most fruitful conception
most fruitful which met
conception which with great
met with great
favor on
favor on thethe part
part of of the dramatic poets,
the dramatic chiey of
poets, chiefly Euripides, and
of Euripides, and
Socrates passed
through Socrates
through passed overover into
into the systems of
the systems Plato and
of Plato and Aristotle
Aristotle
only to
only to become
become the the plaything
plaything of the Stoics.
of the Stoics.
The Sophists
The Sophists then then appeared,
appeared, "men men of no system
of no system but surveying
but surveying
all, only
all," only to nd aa multitude
to find multitude of of ineffectual
ineffectual predicates applied to
predicates applied the
to the
world. By
world. By the rivalry between
the rivalry between the the schools
schools andand the the publication
publication of of
hand-books of
hand-books of dialectics
dialectics like those of
like those Zeno and
of Zeno and Melissus,
Melissus, the weak-
the weak-
nesses of
nesses of the several philosophies
the several philosophies became known to
became known to the general
the general
educated public,
educated public, and and the appearance of
the appearance of the rexvat pr/TopiKai,
the rixvai nropucat, which
which
form aa complete
form complete parallel
parallel to this dialectic,
to this disseminated still
dialectic, disseminated more the
still more the
art of
art logic-chopping which
of logic-chopping served only
which served practical purposes
only practical purposes and and
defeated theoretical
defeated theoretical ends. ends. Then Then came came thethe application
application of of thethe
See
'See Heinze,
Heinze, Die
Die Lehre mm Logos,
Lchrc vom Logos, pp. 157.
pp. 1-57.
2Diimmler
' in his
Diimmler in Ahadcmz'ha has
his Akademika has treated of this
treated of this subject,
subject, but his work
but his work is
is
unfortunately not
unfortunatel)' not trustworthy.
trustworthy.

'
IO
Heraclitic doctrine
Heraclitic doctrine to subject after
the subject
to the after the
the predicate
predicate had been
had sum-
been sum-
marily dismissed.
marily dismissed. Protagoras, still regarded
regarded some
indeed,
Protagoras, indeed, feelings
some feelings
still
as valid,
as valid, but he proceeded
but he quite evidently on the supposition that
proceeded quite evidently on the supposition
that aa
state must
state exist,- that
must exist; that is, he accorded to these data of experience, as
is, he accorded to these data of experience, as
I
he thought,
he thought, an absolute reality,
an absolute reality, but still he
but still could not
he could vindicate it
not vindicate it
for them except
for them except as as they
they were accepted as
were accepted means toward
as means toward an end.
an end.
And herein
And herein he laid bare
he laid bare the only satisfactory criterion of truth and
the only satisfactory criterion of truth and
reality. But
reality. But his successors disclaimed
his successors disclaimed this this or any end
or any end asas valid, and
valid, and
so reduced
so 116,149 and
reduced vd/xoi (juices, particular
and ^vVt, particular and and universal,
universal, to one, namely,
to one, namely,
the unmeaning brute
the unmeaning impulse of
brute impulse of the moment. Thus
the moment. there is
Thus there neither
is neither
predicate
predicate nor nor copula:
copula: only wouldbe subject
only aa would-be subject remains
remains to which is
to which is
denied all
denied all valid
valid ulterior reference, and
ulterior reference, and soso in
in aa true sense not
true sense even aa
not even
subject is
subject left.
is left.
It was
It was just Socrates took
that Socrates
here that
just here took his stand. For
his stand. For hehe accepted
accepted
the challenge
the challenge of of the Sophists to
the Sophists ght the
to fight the battle
battle on their own
on their own ground,
ground,
conscious that
conscious that in order even
in order even to defend their
to defend their position they must
position they must
have aa real
have subject and
real subject and eo ipso aa real
co ipso real predicate.
predicate. In other
In other words,
words,
Socrates had
Socrates had seized
seized uponupon the logic of
the logic Protagoras demand
of Protagoras' demand for the
for the
validity of
validity of certain
certain datadata of of consci
conscigusness, and, being
ousness, and, being an an intensely
intensely
practical
practical manman as well as
as well as aa philosopher,
philosopher, he saw ELEM
he saw that in orde^ to to right
right
action kno wledge is necessary, and
action knowkgiineggsary, and a real predicate
a real predicate in in order
order to
to
Granted, we
knowledge. "Granted,"
knowledge. may conceive
we may conceive him him saying, granted
saying, "granted
that we have
that we have onlyonly thethe subject, the percept,
subject, the percept, our our problem
problem is is then to
then to
nd the
find the predicate,
predicate, the concept. Socrates,
the concept." Socrates, thatthat is
is to say, represents
to say, represents
purely
purely and simply the
and simply attitude of
the attitude of the mind in
the mind in surveying
surveying thethe means
means
at its
at disposal with
its disposal view to
with aa view nding the
to finding end.2 This
the end.' This isis precisely the
precisely the
These,
' These, according
according to to Plato's
Platos Protagoras, 320 C
Protagoras, 320 C ff.,
ff., were 0.26:6: and
were aldiis and Ski;.
Mn].
2All
= of the
All of the characteristic
characteristic expressions
expressions andand aims
aims of of Socrates
Socrates fall
fall definitely into
denitely into
line with
line this position.
with this position. self-examination {airiv
His self-examination
His (alrrbv iêrdj^ctv), his intellectual
fsrdg'ew), his intellectual mid-
mid-
wifery (ûoicuTiK^),
wifery (Mater/rim, hishis irony, confession of
his confession
irony, his clearly indicate
ignorance, clearly
of ignorance, indicate his his being
being
occupied with
occupied with thethe subject.
subject. So, So, too, favorite injunction
his favorite
too, his injunction yvw9i71/639: iravriv
o'aurv and
and itsits
awpomiun characterize
correlate aa<l>poirivii
correlate characterize the the need of keeping
need of keeping close close to the means
to the means in order to
in order to
nd out
find out just what they
just what they are
are or stand for.
or stand We readily
for. We readily see see why
why it was that
it was Socrates
that Socrates
not hypostatize
did not
did hypostatize the concept, as
the concept, Aristotle tells
as Aristotle tells us;
us for
;
for he
he had
had not fairly attained
not fairly attained
it:
it:
was just
he was
he Even his
it. Even
seehing it.
just seeking his definitions were only
denitions were only tentative,
tentative, like those in
like those the
in the
minor Platonic
minor Platonic dialogues. Socrates conviction
dialogues. Socrates' conviction that virtue is
that virtue knowledge likewise
is knowledge likewise
represents just
represents this stage
just this stage in in the development of
the development of judgment. Intellection is
judgment. Intellection not
is not
coextensive with
coextensive with right action, but
right action, is only
but is moment in
only aa moment it. It
in it. comes in
It comes at the
in at the point
point
When the
when self is
the self is defining itself as
dening itself means to
as means to ascertain
ascertain its its legitimate
legitimate endend and dening
and defining
the means,
the means, in in turn,
turn, in terms of
in terms of the
the end.
end. It It can, therefore, be
can, therefore, synonymous
made synonymous
be made

,
IN THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN THE ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM
SYSTEM II
I I
meaning
meaning of%
his search
of his search for
for definitions,
denitions, and Aristotle
and was
Aristotle was certainly
certainly-
right in
right singling out
in singling induction and
out induction and djfinition as
as the dnition
specic con-
the specific con-
tribution of
tribution Socrates to
of Socrates history of
the history
to the thought.
of thought.
Necessary and helpful
Necessary and helpful as Socrates procedure
as Socrates' was
it was
was, it
procedure was,
undeniably fraught
undeniably fraught with
with serious consequences for
serious consequences subsequent
all subsequent
for all
thought.
thought. In order
In to prove
order to that certain
prove that certain conceptions were valid,
conceptions were he
valid, he
thought it
thought necessary to
it necessary discover them
to discover them inin the minds of
the minds of all:
all but this
but this :
inevitably led
inevitably led to
to seeking notions by
these notions
out these
seeking out by eliminating as non-
eliminating as non-
essentialevery mark
essmtial every mark which was not
which was everywhere present.
not everywhere present.' result
The result
The
was the
was the abstract and relatively
abstract and relatively contentless
contentless concept." This view
concept.2 This view
completely dominated ancient
completely dominated and even
thought, and
ancient thought, now it
even now it is not
is not
wholly aa thing
wholly thing of the past.
of the past. Socrates, however,
Socrates, did not
however, did hypostatize
not hypostatize
the concepts,
the concepts, but
but as we
this, as
this, we have
have said, was chiefly
said, was chiey due
due to to his not
his not
having fairly
having attained them. In
fairly attained them. In like manner, like he regarded the
manner, he regarded the
Good as
Good as purely functional and relative,
purely functional and relative, giving it no
giving it no precise deni-
precise defini-

tion
tion;^ for his
; for his position,
position, as as wewe have
have seen,
seen, was on the
was on side of
the side of the
the
means, or
means, or subject.
subject. But But his
his followers
followers diddid hypostatize
hypostatize both the Good
both the Good
and the
and the Ideas, the Megarians
Ideas, the calling Virtue
Megarians calling Virtue oror the
the Good
Good the only
the only
.real.
real. Hence it
Hence itris clear that
is clear the standpoint
that the standpoint of of his successors was
his successors was
for
for the most part
the most on the
part on outcome of
the outcome of his
his search,
search, on the predicate,
on the predicate,
and their problem
and their will be
problem will seen to
be seen to be
be just
just the reverse of
the reverse of his.
his. Aristip-
Aristip-
pus and Antisthenes
pus and Antisthenes are are the only real
the only real exceptions, and Aristotle
exceptions, and tly
Aristotle fitly
classed the
classed former as
the former as aa Sophist.
Sophist.
It is
It common to
quite common
is quite suppose that
to suppose there was
that there was aa period
period in Platos
in Plato's
philosophizing
philosophizing when when he he hadhad not reached the
not reached the standpoint
standpoint of of his
his
with right
with which it
action, which
right action, it assures, only
assures, only if the concrete
if the concrete act act is broken up
is broken and this
up and this
one phase
one is
phase is set off
set off as the whole.
as the whole. This appears
This appears to
to me the
me truth that
the truth that underlies
underlies thethe
rather complicated
rather criticism of
complicated criticism of Socrates'
Socrates views
views ofof the
the dicoi5<rioy in the
initiator in the third
third book
book ofof
the Nicomachcan
the Ethics.
Nicotnachean Ethics.
' This is
' This is the
the natural consequence of
natural consequence of admitting,
admitting, as Socrates virtually
as Socrates virtually did,
did,
the correctness of
the correctness of the
the Heraclitic
Heraclitic views
views of of sensation.
sensation. Cf. Cf: Sext. Empir., VII,
Scott. Emfir., VII,
131 ff.
131 ff.
Hence Aristotle
2 Hence
^ Aristotle must unite the
must unite aimi and
Ka o6t6
the Ka$' and thethe Ka-To. raw-r6: or
Kara ravT6s 1rl an
or irl in
Train in
every true
every Kakau. See
true KaBiXov, See Prantl, Gcsch. der
Prantl, Gesck. Logih, I,
der Logik, I, p. 167. The
p. 167. confusion thence
The confusion thence
arising regarding
arising regarding general
general or universal notions
or universal notions is is rather
rather pathetically illustrated in
pathetically illustrated in
Lockes polemic.
Locke's polemic. Aristotle employs
Occasionally Aristotle
Occasionally employs the the word
word Ka8b\ov
Kakou inin the
the sense
sense ofof
indenite (cf.
"indefinite" (cf Zeller,
Zeller, II, B, p.
II, B, n.) and
199, n.)
p. 199, and it is aa pity
it is that he
pity that he did not see
did not that
see that
that is
that its precise
is its meaning. Had
precise meaning. Had hehe recognized
recognized thisthis point,
point, we should probably
we should probably notnot
have been
have aficted with
been afflicted formal
with aa "formal logic.
" logic.
See Xen.
3 See
3 Maria, III,
Xen. Mem., 8.
Ill, 8.

12
theory of
theory Ideas.
of Ideas.' may be
This may
This so
true so
be true as
concerns his
far as
concerns
far hypostatiz-
his hypostatiz-
ing the Ideas,
ing the Ideas, but
but it
it must be
must plain that
be plain from the outset he
that from the outset assumed,
he assumed,
common with
in
common
in with other
other Socratics,
Socratics, the the result
result of Socrates enquiry,
of Socrates' enquiry, to to
the concept
wit, the
wit, concept as as something
something real real and of all things most important.
and of all things most important.
This position
This position onceonce attained,
attained, the consequence was
further consequence
the further mere
was aa mere
matter of detail; and
matter of detail;" and after
after the
the bearings
bearings of
of the
the new standpoint
standpoint
were canvassed and
were canvassed and brought
brought fully fully to to consciousness,'
consciousness,3 there was but
there was but aa
single choice to make.
single choice to make. Either
Either Plato
Plato had
had to
to deny utterly
deny utterly the
the reality
reality
of all
of individual things,
all individual as did
things, as did the Megarians, or
the Megarians, or else life problem
his life
else his problem
^\must be
must the mediation
be the mediation of of the
the IdeasIdeas back
back to to the world of
the world sense.
of sense.
The mere fact
The mere fact that
that he refused to
he refused to assent
assent to the Megarian
to the Megarian Good or4
Good or^
the undifferentiated
the undifferentiated unity unity of of abstract
abstract Being,
Being, and and insisted
insisted on on postu-
postu-
lating aa multiplicity
lating multiplicity of Ideas only
of Ideas only teleologically,
teleologically, not logically,
not logically,
subordinated to
subordinated the Idea
to the Idea of of the
the Good, shows unmistakably
Good, shows unmistakably which which
\ alternative he
âlternative he accepted. Henceforth the
accepted. Henceforth direction of
the direction his philosophy
of his philosophy
clearly determined.
was clearly
was determined. He He did did not indeed succeed
not indeed succeed in in bridging
bridging
the chasm
the created by
chasm created the dialectic
by the dialectic of Socrates, but
of Socrates, but be spared no
he spared no
effort in
effort his desire
in his desire to do so.
to do so. Thus Thus in in thethe Sophist
Sop/list he he endeavors
endeavors to to
annul the
annul the blank negation of
blank negation of the
the concrete
concrete and and to charge the
to charge Ideas
the Ideas
causality in
with causality
with order to
in order make them
to make serviceable for
them serviceable explanation.
for explanation.
To be
To sure this
be sure this abstract logical effort
abstract logical failed; for
effort failed for indeed
; indeed it was pre-
it was pre-
destined to
destined to failure from the
failure from the moment
moment that that Plato accepted the
Plato accepted the Socratic
Socratic
concept for
concept for his Idea. But
his Idea. But in in thethe practical
practical sphere, where futile
sphere, where futile
abstractions do
abstractions do notnot acquire
acquire so rm aa footing,
so firm footing, Plato, like other
Plato, like other phi-
phi-
losophers,came
losophers, nearer to
came nearer to aa solution
solution of his problem.
of his problem. In In ^t,
the Republic
Repuhlz'c
and the
and Laws he
the Laws he made very considerable
made aa very considerable advance advancegtoward mediat-
toward mediat-
ing the
ing Idea of
the Idea of the Good to
the Good the concrete
to the concrete worldworld of of fact,* and in
fact, and in the
the
This
' This supposition appears to
supposition appears to me to be
me to be very It could
doubtful. It
very doubtful. only apply
could only to
apply to
the minor
the minor dialogues,
dialogues, in any case;
in any case ; and in calling
and in calling them Socratic "
them "Socratic we already
" we already
exhibit their
exhibit their real
real character as dialogues
character as of
dialogues of search in
search in which,
which, in in imitation of
imitation of
Socrates,
Socrates, Plato
Plato stated
stated no no denite conclusions. Yet,
definite conclusions. even here,
Yet, even it must
here, it must bebe owned
owned
that he
that he always which he
doctrine which
suggests aa doctrine
always suggests he does
does not elaborate.
not elaborate.
2Altogether
= Altogether the hypostatizing of
the hypostatizing the Ideas
of the Ideas was
was not Platos absorbing
not Plato's absorbing interest,
interest,
some take
as some
as it to
take it to be.
be. It was
It really only
was really only the consequence of
the consequence of his
his accepted stand-
accepted stand-
point, and where
point, and where other are prominent
enquiries are
other enquiries prominent thethe Ideas
Ideas are
are treated
treated merely as
merely as
notions. Cf.
general notions.
general Cf: Shorey,
Sliorey, Be Platonis Idearum
De Platonis Doctrina, etc.,
Idearzcm Doctrina, etc., Munich, 1884.
Munich, 1884.
It appears
3 It
3 appears toto me that this
me that is precisely
this is the position
precisely the position in Platos philosophizing
in Plato's philosophizing
which the
which Parmerzicles represents.
the Parmenides represents. The The attacks directed against
attacks directed against itsits genuineness
genuineness
all based
are all
are failure. II think,
upon aa failure,
based upon to comprehend
think, to comprehend just Plato had
what Plato
just what to do.
had to do.
See Heinze,
4 See
" Heinze, Lehre
Lehre vom Logos, p.
710m Logos, 65 f.: " Wie
p. 65 f.: Wie in der Republik
in der Republik die
die Gestaltung
Gestaltung

3
THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN THE
IN ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM
SYSTEM I3
1
th'lehus
Philebus he essayed with
he essayed equal success,
with equal in the
success, in sphere of
the sphere of ethics,
ethics, to
to
mediate between
mediate between pleasure
pleasure and knowledge.
and knowledgê.
It is
It only too
is only too evident,
evident, therefore, that the
therefore, that logic of
the logic Platos position
of Plato's position
rendered his
rendered his problem incapable of
problem incapable solution, just
of solution, as that
just as that of Protagoras
of Protagoras
excluded aa valid
excluded valid end
end or ideal. As
or ideal. As hedonism, even, was
hedonism, even, was an advance
an advance
on the
on the standpoint which abstracted
standpoint which abstracted the
the means,
means, i. e., the percept
e., the and
percept and i.
the pleasure-pains,
the declared them
and declared
pleasure-pains, and means to
them means no self-justiying
to no self-justiying end,
end,
so the
so the partial capitulation to
partial capitulation hedonism in
to hedonism the Philebus
in the Philehus betokened
betokened the the
abandonment of
abandonment of the
the extreme intellectualism which
extreme intellectualism which waswas the logical
the logical
outcome of
outcome of the theory of
the theory Ideas. Aristotle
of Ideas. merely continued
Aristotle merely continued to work
to work
Platos problem
at Plato's
at very indifferent
with very
problem with indifferent success.
success. HisHis criticism
criticism ofof the
the
doctrine of
Platonic doctrine
Platonic of Ideas
Ideas amounts
amounts in the end
in the only to
end only that it
this: that
to this it r
renders mediation,
renders which he
mediation, which he desires
desires no more and
no more and no than Plato
less than
no less Plato
utterly impossible,'
himself, utterly
himself, while it
impossible,r while contributes nothing
it contributes toward aa
nothing toward
knowledge of concrete things.''
knowledge of concrete things.2 Precisely,
Precisely, then, as Plato had assumed
then, as Plato had assumed
guten im
des guten
des Staate dargestellt
im Staate dargestellt wird, so
wird, so soll Im
soil Timaeus nachgewiesen
im Timaeus nachgewiesen werden,
werden,
auf welche
auf welche Weise die Idee
Weise die Idee des
des guten im Weltall
guten im Weltall zur Verwirklichung kommt."
zur Verwirklichung kommt." In
In
the Timaeus
the Timaeus this effort at
this effort at mediation
mediation is confessed to
is confessed to be
be a theoretical failure,
a theoretical failure, forfor it is
it is
designated as
designated as aa witty
witty guess.
guess. The World-Soul is
The World-Soul is the chief means
the chief means of of mediation
mediation in in
the world
the world of of things.
things. In In the Laws the
the Laws the Ideas
Ideas are are not mentioned as
not mentioned such at
as such at all,
all, but
but
in substance the
in substance the Idea
Idea of of the
the Good
Good is there. If
is there. If Plato
Plato everever did
did resort to mathematics
resort to mathematics
to any considerable
to any considerable extent,
extent, andand ifif he then placed
he then placed the manna-rim between
the im9iiiuitik& between the the Ideas
Ideas
and things
and things of of sense,
sense, this
this would only be
would only another illustration
be another illustration of of the deep conscious-
the deep conscious-
ness of
ness of his problem. It
his problem. seem that
would seem
It would that behe did
did notnot perhaps employ mathematics
perhaps employ mathematics
in an altogether
in an serious vein,
altogether serious vein, but merely, as
but merely, as in
in the analogous physical
the analogous disquisitions
physical disquisitions
of the
of the Timaeus,
Timaeus, to to show
show that there was
that there was aa via.y
way of of mediation
mediation left left open
open ifif one
one resorted
resorted
to the
to the abstract
abstract speculations
speculations of of the Pythagoreans. It
the Pythagoreans. was but
It was natural that
but natural the Old
that the Old
Academy took
Academy took up up this half-serious endeavor
this half-serious endeavor in in full
full earnest.
earnest.
xSee Zeller,
'See Zeller, II, B, 296,
II, B, 296, ns.
ns. 2-4, and 297,
24, and n. I.
297, n. I. When Aristotle complains
When Aristotle complains that that
the Ideas
the Ideas are not an
are not an efhcient
efficient cause
cause hishis criticism
criticism strikes
strikes his own prime
his own mover or
prime mover God
or God
equally, and
equally, and hence
hence hishis objection that the
objection that the Ideas are not
Ideas are not even
even thethe final cause is
nal cause wholly
is wholly
unjustied. Plato's
unjustified. Platos Ideas
Ideas are Ideals also,
are Ideals also, and
and as such they
as such serve for
they serve for his teleology
his teleology
quite as
quite effectively as
as effectively Aristotles God.
as Aristotle's God. It only too
is only
It is too evident that Plato
evident that Plato was
was far
far
conscious of
more conscious
more of the
the weak
weak points
points of of his
his system
system than Aristotle was
than Aristotle was ofof his own. If
his own. If
critics would
critics would come come to to recognize
recognize this there would
this there would be less finding
be less nding of of mare's-nests.
mares-nests.
Almost all
Almost of the
all of arguments alleged
the arguments alleged against
against the the genuineness
genuineness of of the
the greater Platonic
greater Platonic
dialogues are
dialogues are born
born of of this
this misunderstanding.
misunderstanding. Once Once it it is fairly considered
is fairly considered that that
Plato was
Plato was farfar more interested in
more interested in mediating
mediating his his Ideas
Ideas back
back toto the
the world than in
world than in
hypostatizing them,
hypostatizing them, it must be
it must apparent that
be apparent that he
he could
could not not dodo otherwise than develop
otherwise than develop
the diiculties inherent
the difficulties inherent in in his doctrine. The
his doctrine. diiculties he
The difficulties he thus
thus started, the
like the
started, like
now famous rpWos
now famous rpl-ros ivBpairoi, critics quite
his critics
dy0purn'os, his harped upon
naturally harped
quite naturally upon to to the
the evident
evident
entertainment of
entertainment of their
their modern successors.
modern successors.
"See the passages
See the cited by
passages cited ihid., p.
Zeller, ibid.,
by Zeller, 297, ns.
p. 297, ns. 22 and
and 3.3.

14
as given
as given or or assured
assured the the standpoint toward which
standpoint toward which the the Socratic search
Socratic search
pointed, ml the
2112., that
pointed, viz., tomept: were
the concepts valid and
were valid and the
t/ze only
only objects
ojeet: ofof knowl-
knowl-
edge, so
edge,^ so Aristotle
Aristotle laid laid holdhold onon the conclusion which
the conclusion which plainly
plainly lay lay
immanent in
immanent Platos persistent
in Plato's efforts at
persistent efforts at mediation,
mediation, namelynamely that that the
the
amerete was
concrete was real.
real. ThereThere can can be no question
be no question as as to which of
to which the two
of the two
was the
was more consistent.
the more consistent. In In fact, Aristotles thorough-going
fact, Aristotle's thorough-going dual- dual-
ism and
ism and the fundamental contradiction
the fundamental contradiction of of his system lie
his system lie just
just in this,
in this,
that he
that he accepted
accepted the the outcome
outcome of of both movements as
these movements
both these as final,
nal,
accepted, that
accepted, that is to say,
is to say, aa fixed
xed given concept and
given concept and an equally fixed
an equally xed
given percept,
given percept, and failed in
utterly failed
and utterly his endeavor,
in his endeavor, if such it
if such may be
it may be
called, to
called, attain aa higher
to attain higher principle
principle to which both
to which were only
both v/ere only relative.
relative.
on the
If, on
If, other hand,
the other hand, his theory of
his theory induction marks
of induction marks little
little oror no
no
advance upon
advance upon that
that of of Socrates, while he
Socrates, while he elaborated
elaborated the deductive
the deductive
process
process or or syllogistic
syllogistic reasoning
reasoning to to anan allall but denitive form,
but definitive this
form, this
circumstance finds
circumstance nds its explanation in
its explanation the direction
in the direction of of his
his interest.
interest.
As merely
As merely continuing
continuing the the movement
movement from from thethe universal
universal to the par-
to the par-
ticular which was inaugurated by
ticular which was inaugurated his attention was
Plato, his attention was centered
by Plato, centered
on the
on the concrete which he
concrete which he regardedas
regarded as the only real;
the only real; andand the syl-
the syl-
logism is only
logism is only the abstract formulation of the process
the abstract formulation of the of deducing
process of deducing
the particular
the particular from,from, or or subordinating
subordinating it to, the
it to, general.
the general.
This fact,
This fact, taken
taken in
in conjunction
conjunction with
with the
the other that Aristotle
other that Aristotle is is
particularly
particularly interested
interested in empirical investigation,
in empirical investigation," will
will serve
serve toto dene
define
his standpoint
his standpoint still more clearly.
still more clearly. Knowledge,
Knowledge, he he is convinced in
is convinced in
common with
common Plato, is
with Plato, to be
is to be had
had only
only on
on the
the basis
basis of
of a
a discovery
discovery of
of
ideas, but
ideas, these are
but these are to to bebe found,
found, he believes, not
he believes, outside, not
not outside, not byby a a
lAristotle is fond
Aristotle is of asserting
fond of that demonstrative
asserting that demonstrative knowledge
knowledge deals only with
deals only with
the eternal,
the diBLa, but
eternal, difSio, at the
but at same time
the same time he
he rallies
rallies Plato for making
Plato for the Ideas
making the Ideas only
only
immortal
" sensibles, because
immortal sensibles," because the Idea of
the Idea of aa man
man has only the
has only same content
the same content as
as
man in general!
" man in general " ! 67. ibiai, p.
Zeller, ibid.,
Cf. Zeller, 293, n.
p. 293, 4. This
n. 4. is aa good
This is good example of his
example of his
psychological crudities. He
psychological crudities. He calls
calls "man
man inin general"
general " a 1100911615 and
a <t>0apTtv, yet knowledge,
and yet knowledge,
which deals
which deals in in universals, to do
has to
universals, has only with
do only with t4 5.13641; and
TB. iiSia; one really
and one sees "man
really sees man
in general,"
in general," just as we
just as nd him
we find him asserting the entire
that the
asserting that entire minor premise a judg-
minor premisea judg-
mentis given
mentis given in perception, particularly
in perception, particularly in the practical
in the syllogism. Cf.
practical syllogism. Cf. Zeller,
Zeller,
p. 238, n.
p. 238, n. 2, and p.
2, and 584 for
p. 584 for examples.
examples. WithWith such wholesale acquisition
such wholesale acquisition of of highly
highly
elements by
complex elements
complex by perception and an
perception and immediateness in
equal immediateness
an equal in the intuition of
the intuition of the
the
concepts, aa special
highest concepts,
highest special need
need for fertility in
for fertility in the intellectual process
the intellectual process is satisfac-
is satisfac-
set aside.
torily set
torily aside.
It
= is perhaps
It is perhaps worth here in
noting here
worth noting evidence of
in evidence of Plato's movement toward
Platos movement toward thethe
concrete that
concrete most of
that most of his followers, not
his followers, Aristotle alone,
not Aristotle displayed aa great
alone, displayed interest
great interest
scientic research.
in scientific
in research.

5
THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN THE
SYSTEM 15
1
away from,
movement away
movement from, but within, by
but within, by aa movement toward, the
movement toward, con-
the con-
crete. The
crete. concept, in
The concept, other words,
in other tq be
is to
words, is gained by
be gained by defining the
dening the '_.._.
particular.
particular. But just
But here we
just here discover the
we discover the bad inuence of
bad influence the
of the
induction, proceeding
Socratic induction,
Socratic proceeding asas it
it did
did by the elimination
by the elimination of the
of the
without being
non-essential, without
non-essential, fully conscious
being fully conscious ofof the
the meaning
meaning of this
of this
exclusion.
exclusion. For Socrates,
For indeed, because
Socrates, indeed, had yet
he had
because he to nd
yet to find his
his
the particular
concept, the
concept, particular still possessed
still possessed aa positive value. It
positive value. was the
It was the
nature the particular,
of the
nature of in fact,
particular, in fact, which constituted the
which constituted concept. But
the concept. But
Plato as were, a traveler over the
going over the ground
was, as it were, a traveler going
Plato was, it for a
ground for a second
second
time.
time. The concrete
The concrete things
things of sense had
of sense had for
for him only aa negative
him only negative
as affording
worth, as
worth, affording the
the occasion or the
creation or the suggestion
suggestion for
for remembrance
remembrance
of the
of end attained
the end attained or or enjoyed
enjoyed before.l
before.' induction also
Aristotles induction
Aristotle's also
is of
is of this essentially negative
this essentially negative and and barren character, so
barren character, so far
far as he is
as he is
conscioUs of
conscious of it
it in theory; for
in theory ; for by means of
by means he reaches
it he
of it the
only the
reaches only
foregone conclusion of
foregone conclusion of his
his highest intuitive principles.
highest intuitive principles. And it
And is
it is
clear that this
clear that this result
result waswas duedue not
not to his logical
to his position, but
logical position, but to his
to his
psychological bias
psychological bias or or preconceptions.
preconceptions. Given aa psychology
Given psychology that that
considers the
considers the concrete
concrete objectobject asas presented intact by
presented intact sense-perception
by sense-perception
and the
and the highest genera as
highest genera as merely
merely envisaged
envisaged or or intuited
intuited by rea-
the rea-
by the
son, instead
son, instead ofof recognizing
recognizing both both asas mental
mental constructs,
constructs, and and the con-
the con-
clusions of
clusions of the
the Aristotelian system, incongruous
Aristotelian system, incongruous as as they
they are, follow
are, follow
by
by a logical necessity.
a logical necessity.
Viewed from
Viewed from aa practical standpoint the
practical standpoint the exclusion
exclusion of of the non-
the non-
essential from
essential from the concept is
the concept is not only justied,
not only justified, but
but it even indicates
it even indicates
a truth
a truth which ought to
which ought lead to
to lead to the destruction of
the destruction of the
the theoretical
theoretical
category of
category things and
of "things" and soso of
of the given. When we
the "given." we are
are engaged
engaged
in realizing
in realizing anan end
end which
which we we have
have setset up after aa preliminary
up after preliminary reviewreview
or
or examination
examination of
of our
our means,
means, we
we nd
find in
in our
our experience as
experience presented
as presented
memory certain
in memory
in certain clusters
clusters of qualities which
of qualities which wewe commonly
commonly denote denote
as things.
as These clusters
things. These clusters are are the
the netnet results,
results, so so to speak, of
to speak, of
innumerable previous
innumerable experiences, in
previous experiences, which these
in which things did
these "things" did
service as
service as ends
ends in themselves or
in themselves or as
as means
means toward
toward further
further ends.
ends. We
cannot too
cannot gratefully acknowledge
too gratefully acknowledge the the serviceableness
serviceableness of this our
of this our
minds economy,
minds' economy, by which our
by which our experience
experience and,and, therefore,
therefore, our our whole
whole
fund of
fund of materials
materials or or means
means for for future
future action
action is denitely organized
is definitely organized
so as
so as to obviate the
to obviate fatality of
the fatality depending on
of depending on more
more or or less chance
less chance
This I
1This I take to be
take to the logical
be the logical significance of Plato's
signicance of Platos doctrine
doctrine of
of dud/Lime and
and
ivdnvriffis
crum'yury.
ffvrayuy^.

6
16
1 CONTINGENT
THE NECESSARY AND THE CONtlNGENT
suggestions.
suggestions. The essential point,
The essential point, on on the theoretical side,
the theoretical side, is is to
to
recognize that
recognize that what
what "man
man makesmakes he he breaks,
breaks," or or that
that he may and in
he may and in
fact does
fact readjust these
does readjust these clusters
clusters of of qualities, according as
qualities, according as this
this oror
that content is
that content is peculiarly desirable for
peculiarly desirable for aa particular
particular end, though he
end, though he
need not,
need and, if
not, and, if wise,
wise, will not, utterly destroy the whole outcome
will not, utterly destroy the whole outcome
of his
of former experience
his former experience for for the
the sake
sake ofof an immediate purpose.
an immediate purpose. It It
is precisely
is precisely this regrouping of qualities by discarding those that
this regrouping of qualities by discarding those that areare
for the
for the nonce indifferent or
nonce indifferent or non-essential,
"non-essential," which which is effected in
is effected in the
the
subordination of
subordination of aa particular
particular to universal through
to aa universal through the
the intervention
intervention
of an intermediate
of an intermediate act. act. SpunSpun out and cast
out and into the
cast into form of
the form of judg-
judg-
ments this
ments this process
process is is what
what we we call syllogistic reasoning,
call syllogistic reasoning, in which aa
in which
particular conclusion is
particular conclusion deduced from
is deduced from thethe major
major premise through
premise through
mediation of
the mediation'
the the minor.
of the minor. When our our immediate
immediate end end is accom-
is accom-
plished
plished we look back
we look back overover our work and
our work and put put thethe materials
materials at our
at our
disposal in
disposal readiness for
in readiness for future
future action.
action. Then Then we we reconstitute
reconstitute our our
world of
world things much
of "things" much as as it was before,
it was except that
before, except that it has become
it has become
enriched by
enriched added mark
the added
by the mark of of being good for
being good such and
for such such pur-
and such pur-
poses;
poses and; and forthwith
forthwith we we are
are confronted
confronted by by a a problem wholly of
problem wholly our
of our
own making.
own making. The The previously discarded qualities,
previously discarded qualities, nownew again
again seen seen
in the
in things, are
the "things," are classed
classed as as "accidents"
accidents as as opposed
opposed to to thethe
essence. This
"essence." This onceonce done,
done, thethe arena
arena isis prepared
prepared for the fruit-
all the
for all fruit-
less battles
less battles that that have
have been fought over
been fought substance and
over substance and attribute
attribute and and
inherence. When
inherence. When we we say
say that
that something
something is given we
is "given" we mean
mean onlyonly
that
that itit isis at our service;
at our service but but to
; infer that
to infer that because
because it is here
it is here it has
it has
always been
always been whatwhat it it is and must
is and always remain
must always remain such, such, is only to
not only
is not to
forget the
forget way by
the way which we
by which came, but
we came, also to
but also to cut off all
cut off hope of
all hope of
advance in
advance future.2
the future."
in the
Now
Now this,this, II take
take it, is precisely
it, is precisely whatwhat Aristotle
Aristotle has has done.
done. The The
concept, as
concept, we have
as we have seen,
seen, waswas received
received as legacy of
as aa legacy mere fact
of mere from
fact from
xIt is
'It interesting note what
to note
is interesting to what an an importance Aristotle attaches
importance Aristotle attaches to to the
the ii.4iTov
[aw in in
research.
research. See, e.
See, Anal. Part,
g., Anal.
2. g.. a 55 3.:
90 a
Post., 90 trunaluet &pa
dpa ivv driven
airiaan rais ra'ea't
711.25 ftjT^rreiri
new
ff.: avfiâlvei
gap-eh i) el
^riTeiv i) 51 iiTTL Mtrov 3 tI
{tr-n liiaov ij a'n t6
'rl icrri ,uaov. rb
Tb iiA(Tov. 76 fiiv yap ainou ri
731;) ainov 1'6 ijA(rov, v ScrrtuTi.
[.Lrrov, iv throw Si 6%
See also
gqre'i-rac. See
70911) fTjTen-ai.
toCto also iiiii., 94 a,
ibia, 94 20 ff.
a, 20 This mediation
ff. This mediation on the practical
on the practical sideside isis
precisely,
precisely, as as Aristotle half suggests,
Aristotle half suggests, the getting of
the getting of the
the essential,
essential, z.z'. e., indispensable
e., indispensable
means not
means already in
not already our control
in our control; and
; when the
and when fact is
the fact is analyzed
analyzed after after the attain-
the attain-
ment of
ment of the
the result
result this means is
this means denominated the
is denominated the "cause," while the
"cause, while the other
other less
less
important means
important means take take rank
rank as "conditions. The
as "conditions." conditions" are
The "conditions" are the
the "acci-
"acci-
dental or
dental" non-essential."
or "non-essential."
'I shall hope
I shall hope to to show
show later
later on that this
on that this psychological fallacy'is
psychological fallacy 15 at the base of
at the base of
the distinction
the distinction between
between the necessary and
the necessary and the the contingent.
contingent.

ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM
IN THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN I7
l^
the Socratic
the Socratic movement, and the
movement, and the percept
percept became xed in
became fixed in like man-
like man-
ner by
ner the Platonic.
by the Platonic. Aristotle then
Aristotle assumes both
then assumes these limits
both these of
limits of
the intellectual process
the intellectual process as nally set
as finally set uj3ând immovable, urfand
leaving
immovable, leaving as:
as:
a sphere
a sphere of free
alleged free
of alleged movement only
movement only the interval between
the interval between them.them.
But it
But must be
it must evident at
be evident at first glance that
rst glance that aa process which is
process which is
supposed to
supposed to be vitally connected
be vitally connected with, with, and and bound
bound to, these stable
to, these stable
points
points can accomplish aa progress
can accomplish progress that that is such in
is such name only.
in name only. And And
this status
this status is seen to
is seen to present itself in
present itself manifold forms
in manifold forms in every sphere
in every sphere
Aristotles system,
of Aristotle's
of system, and and marks,
marks, as as it were, in
it were, one word,
in one word, the the hope-
hope-
less dualism
less dualism into which he
into which had fallen.
he had fallen. Induction
Induction and and deduction,
deduction,
as functional
as functional aspects aspects of of real intellectual advancement,
real intellectual advancement, cannot cannot be be
harmonized on
harmonized on this
this basis, and hence
basis, and hence it left for
was left
it was modern episte-
for modern episte-
mology, after
mology, after centuries
centuries of of fruitless
fruitless toil toil within
within the the oldold barriers,
barriers, to to
prepare
prepare a way in
a way in aa truer
truer psychology
psychology for for their
their ultimate reconciliation.
ultimate reconciliation.
Let us
Let stay for
us stay for aa moment
moment to enquire just
to enquire what this
just what this juxtaposition
juxtaposition
of two
of two fixed limits,the
xed limits, concept and
the concept and the percept,
the percept,stands stands for the
in the
for in
practical activity of
practical activity of life,
life, ofof which
which logiclogic is only an
is only an abstract cross-
abstract cross-
section. An
section. An illustration
illustration may may best
best serveserve our our purposes.
purposes. I have
I have
agreed to
agreed to prepare
prepare this this paper
paper for the press
for the press by by aa given date. Sup-
given date. Sup-
pose
pose thenthen thatthat II intend
intend to complete it
to complete within the
it within the specified
specied time.time.
This purpose
This purpose is seen at
is seen once to
at once to fix one of
x one of the
the limits
limits of of mymy activity;
activity;
but
but it really determines
it really determines both. both. For, immediately the
For, immediately the question
question arises,
arises,
What date
What date isis this, and just
this, and how much
just how much have already accomplished?
have II already accomplished?
Everything will
Everything depend on
will depend that. In
on that. In other
other words,
words, my my present
present end end
and the
and means at
the means at my disposal for
my disposal for its
its attainment,
attainment, are are just they
what they
just what
are, neither more
are, neither more nor nor less;
less ; and, if
and, if II persist
persist in my present
in my present intention,
intention,
but only if
but only if II persist, they must
persist, they must be be thusthus determined
determined or or specified.
specied.
Both the
Both the if
"if" and and the must are
the "must" are relative
relative to to the deliberately
the deliberately
dened activity.
defined activity. But But the end II set
the end set upup is merely my
is merely my conception
conception of the
of the
meaning of
meaning what II am
of what am now now doing,
doing, and and my my momentary
momentary status, when
status, when
abstracted from
abstracted from the the whole continuous process,
whole continuous appears as
process, appears means
the means
as the
available towards its
available towards accomplishment. In
its accomplishment. In psychological
psychological terms, terms,
therefore, the
therefore, the immediate
immediate situation
situation is then said
is then said to to be given in
be "given" in
perception, although the
perception, although the percept
percept is is clearly mental construct
clearly aa mental formed
construct formed
under the
under influence of
the influence of discriminative (abstracting) attention
discriminative (abstracting) attention ; and
; and
the meaning
the meaning which which the the mind
mind attaches
attaches to the percept is
to the percept is predicated
predicated
of it
of it asas aa concept,
concept, which seems in
which seems in turn
turn to to be given, though
be "given," though it it too
too
is determined only
is determined only by the same movement of interest that selected
by the same movement of interest that selected

18
l8 THE NECESSARY AND THE CONTINGENT
this particular phase

this particular phase ofof the general situation
the general from which
situation from which to organize
to organize
the percept.
the percept. then, aa single
If, then,
If, single act of mind,
act of the purpQSive
mind, the direction
purposive direction
of discriminative attention,
of discriminative produces both
attention, produces the percept
both the and the
percept and con-
the con-
cept, which,
cept, though not
which, though not distinct, may be
distinct, may be regarded
regarded from two points
from two paints
of view,
of namely as
view, namely as existence or as
existence or as meaning; the problem
then the
meaning; then problem of of pre-
pre-
dication should
dication should present
present no no insuperable difculties. But
insuperable difficulties. But if the "exis-
if the exis-
tence of
tence" of the
the presentation
presentation is divorced from
is divorced from its meaning or
its meaning or quality,
quality,
not only
pot only is
is the validity of
the validity synthetic judgments
of synthetic judgments thereby called in
thereby called in
question, but
question, substance and
but "substance" and inherence forthwith stare
"inherence" forthwith in
one in
stare one
face.
the face.
the
It is well known
is well
It known that that the relation of
the relation the particular
of the particular and and the
the
general was one
general was one of
of Aristotle's
Aristotles most trying problems.
most trying problems. knowl-
All knowl-
All
edge is
edge of the
is of the general, and all
general, and reality is
all reality is in the particular.
in the particular. To be
To be
sure Aristotle cannot
sure Aristotle consistently maintain
cannot consistently maintain such such aa doubtful
doubtful posi-
posi-
tion. It
tion.' It is
is his
his opinion
opinion thatthat the
the universal exists, but
universal exists, only poten
but only poten-
tially (8uvditec) in the concrete. There is surely
tially (8wa/u.et) in the concrete. There is surely no no need
need to to point
point
that potentiality
out that
out potentiality can convey no
can convey meaning unless
no meaning unless it is understood
it is understood
as aa capacity
as capacity of of the
the mind
mind to to produce
produce the concept, but
the concept, if understood
but if understood
in
in this
this sense
sense it
it must
must be
be extended
extended also
also to
to the
the power
power to construct
to construct
percepts, and so
percepts, anql so this ultimate difference
this ultimate difference between
between the the twotwo breaks
breaks
down.2 The
down.'' The fixing
xing ofof the
the two limits of
two limits the process,
of the process, to which we
to which we
have just
have referred leads
just referred leads to number of
to aa number false positions
of false positions in Aristotles
in Aristotle's
logic. In
logic. In the rst place
the first place hehe claims
claims to have found,
to have found, in the concrete,
in the concrete,
that which
that which is always subject
is always subject and never predicate.
and never predicate. Again, since
Again, since
neither of
neither of these can really
these can really pass over into
pass over into thethe other, there'must
other, there must bebe
faculties by
separate faculties
separate by which they are
which they apprehended, sense
are apprehended, sense andand reason,
reason,
fully unreconcilable as
as unreconcilable
fully as as their objects, and
their objects, and theythey must achieve their
must achieve their
content by
content wholly unmediated
by aa wholly unmediated act of intuition.'
act of intuition.3 It It is really un-
is really un-
IAccording as
'According Aristotle
as Aristotle is following the
is following the one or the
one or the other of the
other of two opposite
the two opposite
movements by
movements which his
by which system is
his system is rent in sunder,
rent in sunder, he
he calls now the
calls now the concept, now
concept, now
the percept,
the percept, a ozJa'la. Naturally,
1rpu1'r'q oiaia.
a vptlrrri Naturally, as as continuing
continuing thethe deductive movement
deductive movement
initiated by
initiated Plato, the
by Plato, the general
general isis less often so
less often called than
so called the particular.
than the particular.
Interpreted by
2Interpreted
' by aa more advanced psychology
more advanced Aristotles own
psychology Aristotle's statement would
own statement would
answer: De
answer Anz'ma, III,
.De Anima, 8 : ti1'7 ^vxh
ilwxi; t4 61:11:. riis
'rd. 6vTa 1rd): iari. mirror. fi'3) yhp
on irivra. 11.1170an ri.
7d}: alaSitri 16. trra.
5W0.
firm-Him] an:
III, 8
a van-rd, iari
: :
tl on 6 ^1? hrLCTiio)
vo-qri, 8' p^v rd zrta-r'q-rd mus, 11 6 1111701101: t4
rck îrio-rijrd ttwi, i^ 'rd ala''q-rd.
S' aXae-i]<ris alcrSriTi.
3See on intellectual
See on intuition Zeller's
intellectual intuition note 44 on
Zellers note on page f. It
190 f. is quite
quite natural
moo-racers
3 page 190 It is natural
that the
that concepts thus
the concepts attained, the
thus attained, 1111.601, when
the ir/jordo-eis tf/ieo-ot, analyzed become
when analyzed become purely
purely
analytic judgmentsa
analytic judgments a priorz', as such
and as
priori, and such are conceived to
are conceived to be always true,
be always although
true, although
one cannot
one cannot see what real
see what advantage they
real advantage they could offer.
could offer.

9
IN THE
THE ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM 19
1
fortunate that the

fortunate that entire process
the entire process of should not
knowing should
of knowing likewise be
not likewise be
immediate, for
immediate, sees no
one sees
for one no escape
escape for
for it from
it from the the purely formal
purely formal
shuttlecock movement between these solid
shuttlecock movement between these slid battledores.' Quite in battledores.x Quite in
the spirit of this despair is the statement
the spirit of this despair is the statement that both induction and that both induction and
deduction are
deduction are incapable
incapable of of being carried on
being carried on ad infinitam, and
ad infinitum' that
and that
the highest principles
the highest principles of the several
of the several sciences
sciences areare fixed
xed andand separate.'
separate.3
On such
On such aa basis seems to
there seems
basis there to be be nono possibility
possibility of reconciling
of reconciling
metaphysics with
metaphysics with thethe pursuits
pursuits in denite fields
in definite elds of of scientific
scientic enquiry.*
enquiry.
Now there is,
Now there to be
is, to apractz'caljustication of
sure, a/raÂVa/justification
be sure, of Aristotle's
Aristotles views,
views,
and it
and it lies along the
lies along the lines
lines above suggested ; but
above suggested ;
when these
but whei) distinc-
these distinc-
are introduced
tions are
tions introduced as as final
nal in in thethe theoretical
theoretical sphere sphere theythey become
become
baneful.
baneful. The limits
The limits of of aa science
science are are indeed
indeed fixed xed and
and not not toto bebe
transcended; but
transcended ; this is
but this only because
is only because the the scientist desires to
scientist desires to work
work
out just
out just this denite problem,
this definite problem, and and mustmust not,
not, if if he would succeed
he would succeed in in
his task,
his task, keepkeep thethe boundary
boundary lines lines of of his eld of
his field study shifting.
of study shifting.
Scientic research,
Scientific research, in in aa word,
word, is is aa process
process of experimentation, and
of experimentation, and
experiment is
experiment is nothing
nothing if not aa conscious
if not abstraction of
conscious abstraction of certain
certain
aspects of
aspects fact in
of fact in the effort to
the effort ascertain aa particular
to ascertain particular thing.thing. To To
objectify this
objectify this abstraction
abstraction is only to
is only reinstate the
to reinstate the fiction
ction of of natural
natural
\genera
- genera and and species which science
species which science is now learning
is now learning to discard.
to discard.
already remarked
have already
We have remarked that that Aristotle asked the
Aristotle asked the question
question thatthat
one form
in one
in form or or another
another has occupied the
has occupied thought of
the thought all philosophers
of all philosophers
from the
from the Sophists
Sophists to our own
to our own time, namely, Is
time, namely. Is the
the concept
concept or or the
the
percept
percept the
the real?
real? The
The very
very statement
statement of
of the
the problem
problem contains
contains a
a
which may
duplicity which
duplicity may indicate
indicate its solution. The
its solution. The real real is opposed not
is opposed not
only to
only the potential
to the potential but also to
but also to thethe ideal,
ideal, and and accordingly
accordingly it it is
is
regarded at
regarded different times
at different from various
times from various points
points of of view.
view. This This is, as
is, as
II conceive,
conceive, precisely
precisely the ambiguity which
the ambiguity which underlies
underlies the the Eleatic quib-
Eleatic quib-
xIt is
'It is quite true that
quite true thatAristotle not intend
did not
Aristotle did to render
intend to render logic
logic a2 science of
science of
formal thought,
"formal" thought, (see, e.e. g.,
(see, g., Anal. Post, 71
Anal. Post., 18 f.);
71 i5 18 ff.); but
but it is undeniable
it is that his
undeniable that his
are purely
categories are
categories purely formal (see Zeller,
formal (see Zeller, p. 262. n.
p. 262. n. I), and
l), and both
both his inductive pro-
his inductive pro-
cess, by
cess, which he
by which he analogically inferred the
analogically inferred the highest
highest principles of the
principles of various sci-
the various sci-
ences,
ences, and the
and the deductive as well,
deductive as tended
well, tended to end
to end in mere barren
in mere analysis and
barren analysis and
recomposition.
recomposition.
2See
Zeller, p.
See Zeller, 251 ff. This
p. 25 1 .This supposition,
supposition, very natural from
very natural from Aristotle's
Aristotles stand-
stand-
point, amounts to
point, amounts to aa denial
denial ofof the
the reciprocal
reciprocal cooperation of induction
cooperation of induction and deduc-
and deduc-
tion, both
tion, of which,
both of which, on his principles,
on his must be
principles, must be unproductive.
unproductive.
Cf. Anal
3 Cf.
3 Part, I,
Anal Post, etc.
28, etc.
I, 28, .
4999
4 S** the
f-Ti* nnccnorp (-ihad hv
nemesis": nitpd 7.9"912 n.
bv Zpllpr, 27A.
n. ^1 A.

;
20
CONTINGENT
0r real-
"real-
bles
bles onon thai. Briey, the
(Ivar. Briefly, the two opposed senses
two opposed senses of being or
of "being"
ity may
ity
" may be stated as
be stated as existence and meaning-n Something
" existence " and " meaning." Something has
has
already been
already been said on the fallacy of dissociating these in thought,
said on the fallacy of dissociating these in thought,
and we
and we have
have onlyonly to add that
to add that the distinction is
the distinction wholly untenable
is wholly untenable if if
we concede,
we concede, as apparently we
as apparently we must, all judgments
that all
must, that judgments are are ultimately
ultimately
existential judgments,
existential judgments, and and thatthat "existential signies only
existential " signifies that aa
only that
percept
percept has value or
has value or meaning
meaning within denite or
within aa definite indicated sphere.
or indicated sphere.
The only
The only fallacy
fallacy then
then of those Eleatic
of those sophistries is
Eleatic sophistries is duedue toto their
their
juggling
juggling with with thethe two senses of
two senses of iivai, as above
cfvai, as above explained,
explained, without without aa
discernment of
discernment of the teleological significance
the teleological signicance of meaning. Psy-
of "meaning." Psy-
chologically this
chologically may be
this may referred to
be referred the fact
to the every idea
that every
fact that idea tends
tends
also 'to be
also'to be an ideal or
an ideal or stands
stands for an act,
for an and when
act, and when thus formulated
thus formulated
it helps
it one to
helps one realize how
to realize how the Megarians could
the Megarians identify the
could identify Good
the Good
with Being
with Being and and whywhy there
there has has been
been in in the history of
the history of thought
thought so so
marked aa tendency
marked tendency to to associate
associate God God withwith the highest or
the highest the ultimate
or the ultimate
conception of
conception of aa system.
system. In In Plato
Plato andand Aristotle
Aristotle God God is thus virtu-
is thus virtu-
ally one with
ally one with the the Good,
Good, or or the
the inner
inner meaning
meaning of of the world-wide
the world-wide
teleological process.
teleological process. The real
The then, when
" real " then, opposed to
when opposed the ideal,
to the ideal,
isjust
is that which
just that which has has meaning
meaning as as means toward an
mean: toward an end;
end; as as contra-
contra-
distinguished from
distinguished the potential,
from the potential, it indicates merely
it indicates merely the the validity
validity ofor'
functional significance
functional signicance of of the
the endend itself.
itself.
However apparent
However Aristotles contradictions
apparent Aristotle's contradictions in the logical
in the sphere,
logical sphere,
they represent
they represent his his fundamental difculty only
fundamental difficulty only in in an abstract way
an abstract way;
but just
but just for reason his
that reason
for that his conceptions,
conceptions, though vehemently and
though vehemently and inin
part controverted as
acutely controverted
part acutely as regards
regards their consequences, were
their consequences, were accepted
accepted
as in
as themselves sound.
in themselves sound. We We maymay observe, moreover, in
observe, moreover, case of
the case
in the of
Aristotle the
Aristotle the phenomenon
phenomenon which recurs constantly
which recurs constantly in history that
in history that
the philosophers
the philosopher's views views on on more
more concrete matters approach
concrete matters approach some- some-
nearer to
what nearer
what to consistency
consistency than than in in logical theory. Indeed
logical theory. Indeed in this
in this
instance there are
instance there are peculiar circumstances which
peculiar circumstances favored this
which favored result.
this result.
In the
In the first place, as
rst place, as we
we have seen, Aristotle's
have seen, syllogism is
Aristotles syllogism only aa
is only
formulation of
formulation of the Platonic movement,
the Platonic expressing the
movement, expressing the urgent demand
urgent demand
for scientific
for demonstration. But,
scientic demonstration." But, secondly,
secondly, the Logic appears
the Logic appears to to
have been
have been hishis earliest
earliest serious
serious piece
piece ofof work,
work, and hence it
and hence it would seem
would seem
xII incline
to think
incline to think that Aristotles Logic
that Aristotle's Logic appeared
appeared in answer to
in answer for
demand for
to aa demand
a methodology of
a methodology of scientific
scientic proof similar to
proof similar to that
that for forensic guidance
for forensic guidance metmet by the
by the
Txvat f,riTop,Kai.
Ttxvo., [Sm-optical. That
That his was on
emphasis was
his emphasis demonstration is
on demonstration shown by his elab-
is shown
by his elab-
oration of
oration of the
the syllogistic form and
syllogistic form and the treatment of
the treatment of judgment
'ud ment andand concept only as
elements in
elements deduction.
in deduction. J g concept only as

THE
IN THE
21
quite natural
quite that in
natural that in his Psychology and
his Psychology and the Metaphysics, probably
the Metaphysics, probably
written towards
written the end
towards the of his
end of his life, there should
life, there should be found traces
be found traces of
of
decided advance
a decided
a on his
advance on former views,
his former even there
alt ough even
views, although there his fun-
his fun-
damental dualism
damental was not
dualism was to be
not to resolved. In
be resolved. some respects,
In some respects, indeed,
indeed,
the inner
the conict of
inner conflict motives became
of motives became perhaps most apparent
perhaps most apparent in this
in this
eld just
field just because
because of the prominent
of the part played
prominent part by aa new
played by new conception.
conception.
This conception
This was that
conception was that of development, which
of development, differs from
which differs from other
other
systems of evolution in that it is qualitative instead of quantitative.
systems of evolution in that it is qualitative instead of quantitative.
Or rather,
Or rather, we ought perhaps
we ought perhaps to to state
state it somewhat different
in somewhat
it in different termsterms
order to
in order
in display its
to display relation to
its relation to hishis system
system as as aa whole.
whole. It It was
was
remarked above
remarked above in speaking of
in speaking of Anaximander
Anaximander that organic evolution,
that organic evolution,
as commonly understood,
as commonly understood, is deductive process
is aa deductive seeking to
process seeking explain
to explain
particular by
the particular
the the universal,
by the universal, the the individual
individual by the species.
by the species. In In
this movement
this movement the stress of
the stress of interest
interest is is on the concrete
on the individual
concrete individual
which it
which regards as
it regards as the
the real. Aristotles development,
real. Aristotle's however, is
development, however, is just
just
the reverse of
the reverse of this
this: It
: moves from
it moves from the the potential
potential to the actual,
to the from
actual, from
matter to
matter to form,
form, fromfrom percept
percept to to concept,
concept, fromfrom the the world
world to God.
to God.
And just
And herein we
just herein we find merely another
nd merely another phrasing
phrasing of of Aristotle's
Aristotles
underlying conflict
underlying conflict of of motives, discovering aa higher
without discovering
motives, without higher princi-
princi-
ple which both
to which
ple to both are are relative.
relative. If If Aristotle
Aristotle did did not attain aa spirit-
not attain spirit-
ual monism,
ual monism, towardstowards which which his system manifestly
his system manifestly tended,
tended, his failure
his failure
was due to
was due the fixed
to the xed limits
limits which
which we we have
have hadhad so so frequent occasion
frequent occasion
to mention
to mention; for ; thwarted the
they thwarted
for they the only conceivable purpose
only conceivable purpose he may
he may
have had
have had in in placing
placing the teleology, which
the teleology, which with Socrates and
with Socrates and Plato
Plato
was external,
was external, and and itsits meaning
meaning withinwithin the the process:
process its
: its starting
starting pointpoint
and its
and goal, each
its goal, absolute and
each absolute apart, lost
and apart, lost all signicance for
all significance for it.
it.
If we
If we view
view the world as
the world as aa whole
whole these these limits
limits are the ultimate
are the ultimate
potentiality
potentiality or or unformed
unformed matter matter (-irputTrj 5A1), and
(npairn vX-q), and GodGod its its wholly
wholly
realized meaning
realized (vepyem avoj
meaning (Ivipycm. 51.17;). The
ivw vXjjs). The terms
terms matter
matter andand form,form,
which in
which the concrete
in the concrete individual (mimltov) are
individual (otjVoXov) are purely functional and
purely functional and
correlative, are
correlative, are here abstracted and
here abstracted and opposed
opposed to each other
to each other asas irrecon-
irrecon-
cilably as
cilably as Plato's
Platos /xijWl ov
(iv and din-ms ov,
and wtws and the
(iv, and the problem
problem of mediation
of mediation
becomes
becomes as as urgent
urgent for for thethe oneone philosopher
philosopher as as for
for the other. As
the other. As
Plato's toward achieving
efforts toward
Platos efforts achieving aa causality
causality in Ideas failed,
his Ideas
in his failed, so so
also did
also Aristotles to
did Aristotle's attain aa real
to attain efciency on
real efliciency on the
the part
part of God.'
of God."
God is
God indeed to
is indeed to be the prime
be the mover (tt/jcotov
prime mover Ktvov), but
(wprrov kwovv), but he can act
he can act
xThis subject
'This has lately
subject has lately been
been canvassed anew in
canvassed anew interesting monograph
an interesting
in an monograph by
by
Dr. Elser,
Dr. Lehre des
Die Lehre
Elser, "Die Aristotelcs iiberdas
des Aristoteles iiber das Wirken Gottes," 1893.
Wirken Gottes," 1893.

, '
22
THE" CONTINGENT
only as the
only as the final cause or
nal cause or end,
end, moving
moving though though himselfhimself unmoved.unmoved.
On the
On other hand,
the other hand, all motion proceeds
all motion proceeds by impact (as),
by impact and thus
(o<î;), and thus'
God is
God credited with
is credited with the inconceivable feat
the inconceivable feat of of touching
touching the the utter-
utter-
most sphere
most sphere of of the
the world
world without
without experiencing
experiencing in in return resilient
return aa resilient
contact. If
contact.' If God,
God, who who is to be
is to be thethe true source of
true source of motion,
motion, is is thus
thus
reduced to
reduced to impotence, conversely pure
impotence, conversely matter niust
pure matter must be conceived
be conceived
primarily
primarily as as that
that which
which is always acted
is always acted uponupon but itself. exerts
but itself exerts no no
energy, excepting,
energy, excepting, as as we shall see,
we shall the ungracious
see, the ungracious one one ofof resistance.
resistance.
Just how resistance
Just how resistance is to be
is to be understood, however, unless
understood, however, unless as as resiliency,
resiliency,
which matter
which matter cannot consistently possess,
cannot consistently possess, it it is impossible to
is impossible say. In
to say. In
fact the
fact logic of
the logic Aristotles position
of Aristotle's wreaks its
position wreaks revenges by
its revenges compell-
by compell-
ing him
ing him to to assert outright on
assert outright on occasion
occasion that that matter
matter has has aa positive
positive
(dppfrj) toward
impulse (op/u.'^)
impulse toward form."
form.2
The effort which
The effort which he made to
he made these contradictions
solve these
to solve contradictions led led himhim
close to
close to the connes of
the confines spiritualism. God,
of spiritualism. God, he he said,
said, acts
acts as as the
the
beloved object (<us
beloved object (is ipia/xevov)
cpuuevov) which, itself putting
which, itself putting forth forth nono effort
effort and
and
remaining unmoved, is
remaining unmovfed, the occasion
is the occasion for for love
love in in the lover. Such
the lover. Such aa
view, if
view, advanced in
if advanced in full consciousness of
full consciousness its "meaning,
of its meaning, would would render
render
world aa living
the world
the living organism
organism (^tSov) (may) as as Aristotle
Aristotle with with most
most of his
of his
countrymen actually
countrymen actually conceived
conceived it. it. It It is evident, none
is evident, none the the less, that
less, that
he did nof
he did fully accept
not fully accept this conclusion in
this conclusion consequences but
its consequences
in its but
employed the
employed foregoing terms
the foregoing terms moremore or or less metaphorically. Yet
less metaphorically. Yet ifif
there is
there one fact
is one fact of of which
which he he is more convinced
is more convinced than than another
another it it is
is
just
just this that motion
this that motion is is real,^ and motion
real,3 and motion is is in his view
in his view the specic
the specific
characteristic of
characteristic life. When
of life. therefore Aristotle
When therefore Aristotle reducedreduced all move-
all move-
ment ultimately to
ment ultimately to that
that of desire, his
of desire, his successor, Theophrastus, per-
successor, Theophrastus, per-
ceiving his
ceiving his fickle
ckle moods,
moods, was was justied
justified in in starting
starting anewanew the the question
question
'xThe notion that
The notion movement can
that movement can bebe propagated
propagated only only by suffers from
drp suffers
by d^^ from the
the
general absurdities
general of the
absurdities of the category of causation.
category of causation. It comes in
It comes the end
in the end toto what
what VennVenn
(Empirical Logic, p.
(Empirical Logic, 56) facetiously
p. 56) facetiously calls rerewing up
calls "screwing t/ze cause
ttf the and the
tame and e'ett into
tile effect into
juxtaposition
time" juxtaporitz'on. '
close
See
= Zeller, p.
See Zeller, p. 317, n. I,
317, n. and p.
I, and 349. n.
p. 349. 2. It
n. 2. of no
is of
It is to object
avail to
no avail object that that this
this
applies only
applies to matter
only to matter as appearing in
as appearing o'ziuohou, for
in aa aivokov, even if
for even if this were true
this were true it it would
would
only postpone
only the problem.
postpone the problem.
Motion is
3 Motion
3 Aristotles copula
is Aristotle's copula in the physical
in the sphere, atid
physical sphere, his great
and his insistance
great insistance
on it
on shows plainly
it shows how much
plainly how much be advanced in
he advanced more concrete
his more
in his discussions beyond
concrete discussions beyond
the abstractions
the abstractions ofof his
his Logic,
Logic, inin which
which he was not
he was not really conscious of
really conscious of the copula at
the copula at
all, but
all, confounded it
but confounded it with the predicate.
with the predicate. Consequently he
Consequently he failed
failed also
also toto attain
attain aa
consistent theory of
consistent theory of negation.
negation. See See Zeller,
Zeller, p. and Prantl,
221, and
p. 221, Gert/z. der
Prantl, Gesch. Logz'l, I,
der Logik, I,
143 ff.
I43ff.

IN THE
THE ARISTOTELIAN SYSTEM 23'
23
as to
as implications of
the implications
to the that fact.
of that fact. said he,
If, said
"If," there be
he, "there desire,
be desire,
and above all desire for the highest good.
and above all desire for the highest good^ this implies the principle this implies the principle
of life
of (,ue-nw. ^xv);
life (/itra :pvxiis); for
for life
life would
would seem seem to to be coextensive with
be coextensive with
motion, unless
motion, unless one one wished
wished to maintain that
to maintain that the objects moved
the objects moved are are
called living
called (Eaxpuxa) according
living (l/ii/rtixa) according to to anan imperfect analogy (xa^'
imperfect analogy (Ka9 o/xoiorijTa
inozrq-m
Koi 3Laopdv.). For
Kai hia<j>opav.). For it is the
it is life of
the life of those that possess
those that possess it it from which
from which
spring the
spring the desires
desires for any object.'"
for any object.I
How easy
How easy it would have
it would have beenbeen for for Aristotle
Aristotle to translate the
to translate the whole
whole
of his
of his system
system into into oneone of of, spiritual
spiritual monismmonism may may be seen by
be seen by consid- consid-
ering some
ering some of of his
his usual forms of
usual forms Throughout the
statement. Throughout
of statement. entire
the entire
concrete sphere
concrete sphere he he aims
aims to to recognize
recognize only only relative
relative distinctions
distinctions
between
between the the potential
potential and and thethe actual, distinctions which
actual, distinctions which are are relative
relative
the end
in the
in end to human purpose.
to human purpose. To be
To sure his
be sure language is
his language is not con-
not con-
sistent, for
sistent, for he he also speaks of
also speaks of individual e'vreltexemz, as,
individual ivreXixûu, as, e. g., aa man;
e. g., man;
but
but it is plain
it is plain thatthat in in his system man
his system man gua individual is
qua individual fully
not fully
is not
realized. He
realized. He is essentially aa ^Zov
is essentially aroAL-nxv, and
{Gov ttoXitikov, and as as such
such finds nds his
his
truest meaning in
truest meaning the state.
in the state. And And so so it might perhaps,
it might perhaps, with with perfect
perfect
justice
justice to Aristotle, be
to Aristotle, be saidsaid thatthat thethe significance
signicance of of these lower
these lower
entelechies is
entelechies only that
is only things at
that "things" at aa certain stage of
certain stage individuation
of individuation
have acquired
have sufcient intrinsic
acquired sufficient intrinsic valuevalue to to be able to
be able to standstand alone.
alone.
Such aa standpoint
Such standpoint is indeed quite
is indeed legitimate, but
quite legitimate, when these
but when things
these things
are objectied, and
are objectified, and areare taken
taken to to be xed entities,
be fixed entities, it it marks,
marks, if any-
if any-
thing, our
thing, our inability
inability to show a:
to show yet precisely
as yet precisely how how God God is t/ze meaning
is the meaning of of
all world. Again,
the world."
all the something may
Again, something may perhaps
perhaps be gained by
be gained consid-
by consid-
Aristotles "four
ering Aristotle's
ering four causes,"
causes," if if we
we remember
remember that that theythey standstand for
for
explanation, and
explanation, and areare not equivalent to
not equivalent to physical causation as
physical causation as vulgarly
vulgarly
understood. The
understood. The reason,
reason, it would seem,
it would seem, whywhy he he could
could place God
place God
so entirely beyond
so entirely beyond the
the concrete
concrete process
process of
of the
the world,
world, was
was that
that he
he
had virtually
had virtually found
found its
its real
real meaning
meaning within
within it;
it; for
for it
it proceeded
proceeded on
on
way with
its way
its with only only thethe shadow
shadow of inuence from
of influence without. This
from without. con-
This con-
sciousness of
sciousness of the all-sufciency of
the all-sufficiency the concrete
of the system of
concrete system of develop-
develop-
ment was
ment was in all probability
in all probability the the strongest
strongest motivemotive for for thethe StoicStoic pan-
pan-
theism. The
theism. symbolical significance
The symbolical signicance of of Aristotle's
Aristotles fourfold
fourfold principle
principle
explanation would
of explanation
of would therefore
therefore seem seem to to be
be just this: the
just this: the process
process of of
In
In Wimmer's T/Leoplzrartur, III,
Wimmers Theophraslus, 152.
III, 152.
IAristotle himself
Aristotle seems at
himself seems at times to realize
times to realize this:
this: See,
See, e.
e. g., Plum, 194
g., Phys., 13 f:
194 b6 13 ff:
dvOpmros yap
dvpamos ykp &v8pairov 761m}: Kal
dupw-Irov yevvf intos, ttus
Kai. tjXms. 1rd): S' Exet
'rb X"/"""''^''
6' cx" ''^ xwpicrrbv "^"i a-n, <pi.\<}(Toij>lai
'rl iari,
Kai rl Lhoaolas
'r-iis Trpiirijs
TTJs Etoplaat pyou,
pair-as Sioplrai, ef. Met.,
and cf.
ipyov, and 1076 aa I3
Met., 1076 ff. In
13 ff. In fact, the two
fact, the last books
two last books of of
Metaphysics deal
the Metaphysics
the largely with
deal largely this problem.
with this problem.

;
24
development, as
development, as material
material cause,
cause, is
is j-<f^-developing,
self-developing, or the process
or the process
differentiating itself
differentiating into means; as efcient cause, it is selfactive;
itself into means; as efficient cause, it is seXi-active;
as essential
as cause,
essential cause, it is seU-defining;
it is self-dening; and and as as final cause it
nal cause it is self-real-
is st\i-real-
izing.
izing. Or, taking
Or, taking the simplied form,
the simplified form, it
it means
means that
that this
this progress
progress of
of
activity, differentiating
activity, differentiating itselfitself into
into two correlative aspects
two correlative aspects as material
as material
and formal
and formal cause,
cause, is self-explaining
is self- explaining or means-andend.
or means- and-end. Thus there
Thus there
would be
would effected aa perfectly
be effected functional interlacement
perfectly functional interlacement of the real
of the real
and the
and ideal. If,
the ideal. If, therefore, Aristotle had
therefore, Aristotle had actually brought the
actually brought the
external limits
external limits within
within thethe concrete reality, as
concrete reality, as it
it certainly would seem
certainly would seem
have been
to have
to been hishis practical tendency to
practical tendency to do,
do, he might have
he might applied his
have applied his
principle zivpwvros avOpaywov
principle avBpwno'i yew. to
dvpmvrov yaiv^ the whole,
to the making it
whole, making thoroughly
it thoroughly
qualitative, and
qualitative, and thus resolved his
thus resolved dualism. It
his dualism. however, to
sufces, however,
It suffices, to
say that
say that the xed percept
the fixed percept and and the xed concept
the fixed concept which which he inherited
he inherited
from the
from the Platonic
Platonic and and thethe Socratic
Socratic movements
movements of of thought respec-
thought respec-
tively, rendered the
tively, rendered the attainment
attainment of this result
of this impossible.I
result impossible.'
It must
It now have
must now have become clear just
become clear just how Aristotles teleology
how Aristotle's teleology is is
related to
related mechanism. His
to mechanism. teleology, in
His teleology, in aa word, depending as
word, depending as itit
does upon
does upon an external end,
an external namely God,
end, namely God, is is impotent
impotent to explain the
to explain the
fact of
fact development except
of development except by the aid
by the aid of of an efcient cause
an efficient cause which
which
according to
acts according
acts to purely mechanical laws.
purely mechanical laws. This This is the significance
is the signicance
of the
of familiar formula
the familiar formula avOpmTroi dvpmvrov yewa,
zivpmros avOpanrov yer/m5, which only served
which only served toto
conceal the
conceal the real
real problem.
problem. For, For, in order that
in order Aristotles theory
that Aristotle's theory maymay
even seem
even seem to sufce for
to suffice an explanation
for an explanation of things, he
of things, he must call in
must call the
in the
assistance of
assistance efciency which
of efficiency which he he asserts
asserts to to bebe ofa kind with
of a kind the
with the
essential and
essential nal forms
and final forms of causation but
of causation but yet numerically distinct
yet numerically distinct;
but surely this
but surely this reintroduction
reintroduction of the conception
of the conception of individual
of individual
things renders
"things" renders his his attempted solution quite
attempted solution quite impossible.
impossible. An An
adequate teleology,
adequate teleology, then, oppose itself
cannot oppose
then, cannot itself to mechanism but
to mechanism but
include it,
must include
must as it
it, as was Aristotle's
it was Aristotles manifest
manifest desiredesire that
that it should.
it should.
The same
The same concrete
concrete purposive
purposive act act assumes twofold aspect
assumes aa twofold according
aspect according
as it
as it is viewed from
is viewed from before
before or or behind.
behind.' When When we we look forward to
look forward to it,
it,
xSiebeck,
" Gare/z. der
Siebeck, Gesch. Psychologie, II,
der Psychologie, II, pp.
pp. I-7, states Aristotle's
1-7, states Aristotles position
position
admirably, but
admirably, he gives
but he him credit
gives him for overcoming
credit for his dualism
overcoming his dualism more thoroughly
more thoroughly
than he
than he actually
actually did.
did. The statement which
The statement which Siebeck
Siebeck gives, other vvfords,
in other
gives, in repre-
words, repre-
sents Aristotle's
sents Aristotles tendency
tendency truly than
more truly
more than his result.
accomplished result.
his accomplished
'2Seen from the
Seen from the point of view
point of view of of explanation
explanation this amounts to
this amounts to the same as
the same as
Aristotles statement,
Aristotle's Anal. Port,
statement, Anal. Post., 9595 a27:
a 27
: an 51j
ca-Ti 6i) i.TTh
dim) toO fie-repay 7eyoi'ATos
100 varepov 'ye'yoyb'ros i6
a'uAAo'ym'pbs, i^>x^
trv\\oyi.<rn6s, dvay ^^6% ml Torwv ri
<">' toiJtuj' rd. yeyovlna, 6th xal
'ye'yoyb-ra, Sii Kai ijrl n5 yivoiUvwv
1r2 tSu w'a'au-rus' 6,vb
'ywoavwv daairwi' rim}
1'00 Tpdrepov
815 roO Eo'nu.
ozm %<rTLv.
1rp6-repov o6k

THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN THE
SYSTEM 25
25
view
view from behind,
it from
it behind, it is external
it is teleology; when
external teleology ;
when we we glance
glance back back
over the
over the completed act
completed act and analyze it
and analyze it into
into time sequences, it
time sequences, it
appears as
appears as aa result attained by
result attained by a a process
process of (if efficient
efcient causation,
causation, or or as as
mechanism. Thus
mechanism. Thus considered,
considered, it closed and
is aa closed
it is and perfectly dened
perfectly defined
fact whose parts
fact whose parts areare precisely
precisely what what they are and
they are and cannot
cannot be otherwise.
be otherwise.
This is
This exactly the
is exactly the definition
denition of of mathematical
mathematical necessity.'
necessity. If, on the
If, on the
other hand,
other hand, we we turn
turn our eyes forward
our eyes forward and and observe
observe the the unstable
unstable
equilibration during
equilibration during the the adjustment
adjustment of means to
of means to thethe end,
end, thethe endend
seems fixed
alone seems
alone xed: the :the particular
particular means means to to be chosen are
be chosen are shifting
shifting
and uncertain,
and uncertain, and and within given limits,
within given indifferent. This
limits, indifferent." This pointpoint of of
indifference is
indifference is passed, however, the
passed, however, the moment
moment it it is determined just
is determined just
what is
what to be
is to included in
be included result, precisely
the result,
in the precisely what what sortsort of result we
of result we
are after.
are after. WhenWhen this this is done the
is done whole series
the whole series of means is
of means forth-
is forth-
xed as
with fixed
with as invariably
invariably as as the
the endend itself
itself; that
; that isis to z'fwe
say, z/
to say, insist
we insist
on having that precise
on having that then we must do this
result, then we must do this and that and may
precise result, and that and may
choose our
not choose
not our methods capriciously. At
methods capriciously. this stage
At this stage we we have
have the the
case of
case of the hypothetical necessity.
the hypothetical necessity. So So great
great is is ourour interest
interest in in
achieving specific
achieving results which
specic results which shallshall be only just what
be only just what they are andthey are and
nothing
nothing else,else, andand so so essential
essential is it, in
is it, order to
in order to their
their attainment,
attainment,
that we shall
that we shall act thus and
act thus and notnot otherwise,
otherwise, that that ourour world appears to
world appears to
us to
us to be completely bound
be completely bound in the chains
in the chains of of an inexorable fate.
an inexorable fate.
But the
But the twotwo partial views of
partial views fact thus
of fact obtained do
thus obtained do not fully
not fully
supplement each
supplement each other, though they
other, though they areare purely correlative; for
purely correlative ; they
for they
both ignore the
both ignore the unity
unity of of the living process
the living process of setting up
of setting and realiz-
up and realiz-
ends within
ing ends
ing within which
which they they as as separate moments find
separate moments nd not not only their
only their
justication
justification but also their
but also their individual
individual extinction.
extinction. In In psychological
psychological
this is
terms this
terms is the
the law
law of habit. It
of habit. It is quite too
is quite common to
too common designate
to designate
by term the
this term
by this mere repetition
the mere repetition of of anan act without taking
act without taking account
account of of
the continuous
the readjustment which
continuous readjustment which really constitutes it
really constitutes renders
and renders
it and
it practically
it serviceable. To
practically serviceable. To speakspeak of of habit
habit in in such manner is
such aa manner is
merely to
merely hypostatize an
to hypostatize an abstraction,
abstraction, and and gives
gives rise
rise toto all
all the self
the self-
contradictions of
contradictions of the
the law
law of causality.3 Habit,
of causality.' Habit, in other words,
in other words, like like
every concrete process,
every concrete resolves itself
process, resolves itself onon analysis
analysis into into aavibrating
vibrating
' This
'This is what
is Aristotle calls
what Aristotle the at; IvSexipi^fOv
calls the ii.t) dhhws
uexpevav iWus xew.
cxi'. More of
More of this
this
anon.
anon.
"Here precisely
'Here the point
is the
precisely is in the
point in the development of judgment
development of judgment at which
at which
Aristotle's dirdrep'
Aristotle's rvxev
drrep ctvxcv stands, as
stands, as we shall
we shall presently see.
presently see.
The usual
The
"
1 statement of
usual statement of this so-called law
this so-called is perhaps
law is most flagrant
the most
perhaps the illustra-
agrant illustra-
tion of the
tion of the barren which results
absurdity which
barren absurdity from fixing
results from xing as
as objective entities both
objective entities the
both the

26
balance
balance of of indentity
indentity and and differentia
differentiae; and; and itit isis essential
essential to note that
to note that
both
both are are equally
equally determined
determined by
by the
the whole
whole and
and have
have no
no meaning
meaning
except as
except as functionally correlated in
functionally correlated in it.
it. ItIt may
may be fairly said
be fairly that
said that
never repeat
we never
we repeat an an act
act in in precisely
precisely the same way;
the same way; the actual
the actual
appearance of
appearance sameness arises
of sameness only from
arises only from aa similarity
similarity in the ends
in the ends to to
be subserved, while
be subserved, while the differentiae grow
the differentise grow outout of of the that these
fact that
the fact these
ends are
ends are only
only similar
similar andand not fully identical.'
not fully identical. Martineau
Martineau has has pro-
pro-
posed
posed to consider the
to consider the laws
laws ofof nature,
nature, which operate mechanically,
which operate mechanically,
as its
as conrmed habits,
its confirmed representing that
habits, representing that portion
portion of of its free
its free
purposive process
purposive process which might perhaps
which might perhaps be called the
be called residual
the "residual
precipitate
precipitate" and and lieslies beyond
beyond the the sphere
sphere of of its highest interests
its highest interests in in
spiritual development.
development. But, even so,
But, even so, matter,
matter, if if set off as
set off as something
something
more
spiritual
more than functionally distinguished
than functionally distinguished as immediate means
as immediate means for for an an
equally immediate
equally immediate end, end, becomes
becomes an an abstraction
abstraction whose relation to
whose relation to
mind presents
mind presents all all the diiculties inherent
the difficulties inherent in in the dualism.2
extremest dualism.'
the extremest
Aristotless principal
Aristotles's discussion of
principal discussion of these
these points occurs in
points occurs the
in the
second book
second book of of the Physics. Nature
the Physics. (quiers), he
Nature (cûo-is), he is convinced, works
is convinced, works
according to
according ends (Iwica
to ends rob), and
(Ex/mi rov), and human
human beings
beings do do likewise, except
likewise, except
they do
that they
that do so so consciously
consciously and and with deliberate purpose.
with deliberate purpose. It is
It is
within this
within this comprehensive
comprehensive sphere sphere that that chance (Trim) and spontane-
chance (tw'xi?) a-i'^d spontane-
ous action
ous action (to (11; avTOfiaTov)
a-rna-rov) fall.
fall. "WeWe may include under
may include under the head of
the head of
purposive
purposive acts," acts, he says, such as result from reection and those
he says, "such as result from reflection and those
which proceed
which proceied from from nature.
nature. When such such actions
actions come about per
come about pe*-
am'den: we
accidens attribute them
we attribute them to to chance;
chance; for, just
for, just as
as being
'being' (stunt)
(tv<u)
means now
means nowper now per
essentiam, novr
per essentiam, arridens, so
per accidens, so tootoo in in respect
respect of cause:
of cause:
the builder,
the builder, for example, is
for exarnple, is the causeper
the cause essentiam of
/i?r essentiam of the
the house;
house; he" he"
is aa white
is white or musicianly builder
or aa musicianly builder on\y only per arridens. Now
per accidens. Now the cause
the cause
fer essentz'am is
per essentiam strictly defined,
is strictly dened, but but thatthat per areidens is
per accidens is indefinite,
indenite,
inasmuch as
inasmuch as untold
untold qualities
qualities maymay be be predicated
predicated of of an individual.
an individual.
has been
As has
As been said,said, then, when this
then, when falls within
this falls within the scope of
the scope of purposive
purposive
percept
percept andand the things and
concept, "things"
the concept, and the law." II know
the "law." know of of no
no better instance
better instance
to cite than
to cite that given
than that given inin Girycki's Moral/zz'losop/zz'e, p.
Gizyckis Moralphihsop/iie, p. 191 f.
191 f.
So
' So far as II am
far as Hume was
aware, Hume
am aware, the first
was the rst to
to recognize
recognize thatthat the category of
the category of
identity arises
identity from the
arises from the consciousness
consciousness of of means
means putput to some common
to "some common end end oror
purpose.
purpose." See See Selby-Bigge's
Selby-Bigges edition of his
edition of Treatise, p.
his Treatise, 257. Hume,
p. 257. Hume, toto be sure,
be sure,
did fully seize
not fully
did not seize the
the significance
signicance of of his
his discovery.
discovery.
zSince
' the above
writing the
Since writing above II have
have had
had my attention
attention called to the
called to the admirable
admirable
articles Mr. Charles
of Mr.
articles of Charles S. S. Peirce
Peirce inin the [Vanish I
the Mottist. I am not quite
am not sure that
quite sure fully
that II fully
understand his
understand his position,
position, but if II mistake
but if mistake notnot itit is identical with
essentially identical
is essentially that
with that

IN THE
27
actions. it
actions, it is said to
is said to result or by
spontaneously or
result spontaneously chance.x The
by chance." mini-
The aiiro- "
subsequently2 defined
is
[.Larov is
ixarov subsequently^ as an
dened as an act which broadly
act Tîch speaking is
broadly speaking is
purposive but
purposive but has has notnot been
been performed
performed with with aaview view to the actual
to the actual
result. In
result. statements we
these statements
In these have, II believe,
we have, believe, the essence of
the essence of Aris- Aris-
totles doctrine
totle's doctrine in in the form best
the form adapted to
best adapted to reveal
reveal its logical and
its logical and
psychological meaning. Chance
psychological meaning. Chance is only the
is only the practical equivalent of
practical equivalent of
logical accidens
the logical maidens and and is is purely relative to to aa process means and
of means and
on
the purely relative process of
ends. We
ends. We havehave previously discussed this
previously discussed this matter
matter on the the psychologi
psychologi-
cal side,
cal and may
side, and may now now content ourselves with
content ourselves drawing the
with drawing conclu-
the conclu-
sions. If
sions. the accidental
If the accidental or or non-essential
non-essential is only the
is only the fossilized
fossilized resi-
resi-
due of
due of former
former groupings
groupings of qualities regarded
of qualities regarded as as nothing
nothing to the
to the
purpose, which is
purpose, which is represented
represented in logic by
in logic the concept
by the concept as as fixing
xing the the
scope of
scope ones momentary
of one's momentary iriterest
interest; then
; then chance,
chance, its counterpart in
its counterpart in
the more
the distinctly practical
more distinctly sphere, is
practical sphere, only the
is only the expression
expression of the
of the
dim "fringe"
dim fringe of of purpose
purpose which which was left undened.3
was left undefined.' admission
The 'admission
The
of chance,
of chance, as as lack
lack of of definition,
denition, then means that
then means that our scope of
our scope enquiry
of enquiry
was false, because
was false, because too limited to
too limited embrace all
to embrace all thethe truth, and that
truth, and that the
the
actual fact,
actual viewed as
fact, viewed as the result of
the result of the attended to
factors attended
the factors could'
to could'
therefore not
therefore not be fully stated
be fully stated in the terms
in the terms we we were handling. This,
were handling. This,
to be sure,
to be sure, is
is again
again simply
simply equivalent
equivalent to
to saying
saying that
that chance
chance is
is rela-
rela-
tive to
tive ignorance, but
to ignorance, but thethe meaning
meaning of of that common phrase
that common phrase is more
is more
denitely specified.
definitely specied. AristotleAristotle hashas himself remarked upon
himself remarked upon thethe unrea-
unrea-
sonable character
sonable character of of chance,
chance, and and hishis words
words may may. be instructive. It
be instructive. " It
quite true,
is quite he admits,
admits, to say that
that chance
chance is is irrational; rea-
for rea-
son
is true," he "to say irrational; for
deals only
son deals only withwith what occurs always
what occurs always or or atat least
least for the most
for the most part,
part,
whereas chance
whereas chance lies lies in reverse of
the reverse
in the these.
of these."
thus we
If thus
If we find
nd him him setting
setting up up asas fixed
xed entities
entities the fmzrtz'onal
the functional
dzferentiee of
differentia of the self-dening process
the self-defining process of of habit,
habit, in form of
the form
in the of
chance, we
chance, we shall
shall naturally expect to
naturally expect to seesee the the aspect
aspect of identity
of identity
abstracted and
abstracted hypostatized as
and hypostatized mathematical necessity.
as mathematical necessity. It It might
might
readily be
readily anticipated that
be anticipated that in this ever-recurring
in this manifestation of
ever-recurring manifestation of
his ultimate
his ultimate dualism
dualism he he must
must fallfall into self-contradiction at
into self-contradiction every
at every
turn. On
turn. On the the oneone handhand he never grows
he never grows wearyweary of of reiterating
reiterating that that
here presented.
here presented. I-lis Tychism
His Tychism and Synechism would
and Synechism would then
then be correlative, answering
be correlative, answering
to the
to differentiate
the differentiae and identity
and in the
identity in teleological process
the teleological process which may also
which may also be viewed
be viewed
as continuous readjustment
as aa continuous of habit.
readjustment of habit.
1961} 21
P/lys., 196*
^Phys., ff.
21 ff. 21m,
'Ibid., o 18 ff.
[97 b 18
197 ff.
3Zeller
3
Zeller cites numerous passages
cites numerous on
passages on pp. which
3334, which
pp. 333-4, that this
show that
show this general
general
view was consistently
view was held by
consistently held Aristotle.
by Aristotle.

;
"8
1'8
. THE NECESSARY AND THE CONTINGENT
nature does
nature nothing in
does nothing vain: but
in vain : whenever his
but whenever his barren concept of
barren concept of
purpose
purpose will account for
not account
will not the particular
for the particular phenomenon,
phenomenon, he charges
he charges
up to
it up
it chance. It
to chance.' is precisely
It is precisely this this defect
defect that contemporary science
that contemporary science
has set
has itself to
set itself to correct, since it
correct, since it cannot refuse the
cannot refuse obligation to
the obligation to
everything. Consequently
explain everything.
explain Consequently its category of
its category of ends
ends in nature
in nature
(under whatever
(under whatever name) name) is is being worked out
being worked out as concretely as
as concretely as the
the
themselves. In
facts themselves.
facts In thus enriching the
thus enriching the concept
concept so so asas to include
to include
even the
even seemingly most
the seemingly non-essential marks,
most non-essential scientists at
marks, scientists at aa blow
blow
break
break downdown the the lineline of of demarkation
demarkation between between that that which happens
which happens
now and
now and again fails to
again fails appear, and
to appear, that which
and that which results always or
results "always or for
for
the most part.
the most part." destruction of
The destruction
The of natural
natural species
species marks marks the the first
rst
step in
step this progress,
in this progress, and and with
with their disappearance the
their disappearance need of
the need of admit-
admit-
ting chance
ting appears to
chance appears vanished. Is
have vanished.
to have Is necessity
necessity then then to to be be
enthroned by
enthroned science in
by science stead?
its stead?
in its
As for
"As for the Aristotle asks,"
necessary, Aristotle
the necessary," whether is
asks, "whether hypotheti-
it hypotheti-
is it
cal or
cal absolute? For
or absolute? For nowadays
nowadays it it is customary to
is customary think that
to think neces-
that neces-
sity inheres in the process
sity inheres in the process of becoming,
of becoming, as if, as e. one
g., one supposed
if, e. g., supposed that that
aa wall
wall had come into
had come into existence
existence of of necessity, because
necessity, because it is the nature
it is the nature
heavy things
of heavy
of things to tend downwards,
to tend downwards, and and of light ones
of light ones upwards
upwards; for ;
for
which reason the stones and the foundation
which reason the stones and the foundation are below, the earth, are below, the earth,
because
because of of its lightness, above
its lightness, above them,them, and and the wooden beams,
the wooden beams, as as the
the
lightest, uppermost
lightest, of all. But the
uppermost of all. But the erection of the wall, erection of the while
wall, while it it
utilized these substances as indispensable,
utilized these substances as indispensable, was not due to them, was not due to them,
except in
except in so so far forth as
far forth as material
material was was wanted
wanted;3' the the rather
rather was was it it
brought about in order to conceal
brought about in order to conceal and protect and something. In like
protect something. In like
manner also
manner also inin respect
respect of of such things as
such things as are
are of distinctly purpo-
of aa distinctly purpo-
sive character, production,
sive character, production, though though not dispensing with
not dispensing with what
what is of aa
is of
necessary nature [i. e.,
necessary nature ['. with what is
e., with what is necessarynecessary to the matter in hand],
to the matter in hand],
still is
still not for
is not for its
its sake save as
sake save as itit is
is material,^
material,3 but but proceeds
proceeds in in view
view of of
an end,
an end, as, e. g.,
as, e. we may
g., we may ask.ask, WhyWhy is is the saw of
the saw of such
such andand such
such aa
structure? Because
structure? Because it was made
it was made for for this specic purpose
this specific purpose and and with
with
Aristotle
' appears to
Aristotle appears to recognize
recognize utility alone as
utility alone as an end in
an end in nature
nature and
and hence
hence
chance products
chance are multiplied
products are multiplied Zeller, p.
(cf. Zeller,
(cf. 333, n.
p. 333, 1). The
n. i). Stoics {cf,
The Stoics Zeller, III
(ef. Zeller, A.,
III A.,
171) seem
171) seem toto have
have been the first
been the rst toto make
make much much of of beauty, which some
iiraa/y, which recent scien-
some recent scien-
(e. g.,
tists (f.
tists the Duke
g., the Duke ofof Argyle)
Argyle) rank
rank among
among the the principal of variation.
causes of
principal causes variation.
' Pkys., II,
'Pyr., The words
9. The
II, 9. words enclosed
enclosed in in brackets
brackets areare additions of mine.
additions of mine.
31 take
31 take the expressions irXjjx
the expressions My: us 2:: Si' iikqv and
6" v\iiv and dXX' iiM/v to
dhh '3 tbs v\i\v
f) <I)S to mean that the
mean that the
materials may
materials themselves enter
may themselves into the
enter into the purpose
purpose since are an
they are
since they integral part
an integral of
part of
the result
the desired. This
result desired. This points naturally to
points naturally to the
the folly of making
folly of hard and
making hard fast dis-
and fast dis-

;;
IN THE
29
this peculiar
this peculiar object object in view. Yet
in view. Yet that
that precise result cannot be
precise result cannot be
attained unless
attained unless it be made
it be made of steelof steel; hence it.is
hence it is necessarynecessary that that it it
i3 to
; .
should be
should constructed of
be constructed that metal
of that metal if if it
it is to be a saw and
be a saw and its pur- its pur-
pose
pose is to be
is to accomplished. Necessity
be accomplished. therefore is
Necessity therefore is hypothetical
hypothetical \i. [i. e.,
e.,
relative to
relative to the means], but
the means'], but is of the
not of
is not end, for
the end, the necessary
for the necessary per- per
tains to
tains to the
the matter,
matter, whilewhile thethe purposiveness
purposiveness is in the
is in the conception.
conception. The The
necessary in
necessary mathematics and
in mathematics and inin products
products of of nature
nature is similar, but
is similar, but
only with
only reservations. Given
with reservations. Given the denition of
the definition of aa right
right line, sum
the sum
line, the
of the
of angles of
the angles of aa plane must be
triangle must
plane triangle equal to
be equal to two right angles
two right angles;
but this relation
but this relation of dependence cannot
of dependence cannot be reversed. If
be reversed.' If the conse-
the conse-
quent is
quent is not
not true, then the
true, then denition of
the definition of aa right
right lineline is not correct.
is not correct.
In respect
In respect of of products
products of art (the
of art reverse is
<the reverse is true,>''
true,>2 if the end
if the end exists
exists
or will
or will exist,
exist, so does or
so does or will
will the antecedent also;
the antecedent also if not,
if; not, asas before
before
[in the
[in case from
the case mathematics] if
from mathematics] the consequent
if the consequent is not true
is not true thethe
premise
premise also also is is not,
not, so likewise here
so likewise here of of thethe end
end and and thethe purpose;
purpose
for this
for also is
this also is aa starting
starting point, indeed of
not indeed
point, not action but
an action
of an of infer-
but of infer-
ence regarding
ence regarding it. it. (In (In the case of
the case mathematics the
of mathematics the end
end or or the con-
the con-
cept is
cept is the
the starting
starting pointpoint of of inference,'
inference,3 for for it is aa theoretical,
it is theoretical, not not aa
practical art.) Hence,
practical art.) Hence, if house is
ifaa house is to
to exist,
exist, then these particular
then these particular ante-ante
cedents must
cedents happen or
must happen or exist,
exist, oror more
more broadly,
broadly, the towards
means towards
the means
a result;
a result ; as, e.
as, e. g., the bricks
g., the bricks andand stones,
stones, if if there
there is to be
is to be aa house;
house
yet not for the sake of these things,
yet not for the sake of these save as materials.
things, save as materials. None the None the
less, but for them there will be neither house nor saw neither the
less, but for them there will be neither house nor sawneither the
tinctions
tinctions between means and
between means and ends
ends as as objectively opposed to
objectively opposed to thethe self.
self. At some
At some
stage in
stage the process
in the every
process every means is
means desired and
is desired and is is in so far
in so forth an
far forth an end;
end but
; the
but the
only true
only true end
end isis the experience, or
the experience, more definitely
or more denitely still,
still, the self experiencing
the self experiencing it. it.
From
' this point
From this onward it
point onward will be
it will necessary to
be necessary to render
render the the rather obscure pas-
rather obscure pas-
sage somewhat
sage somewhat freely. Scholars will
freely. Scholars will observe that II have
observe that have felt
felt obliged
obliged to deviate
to deviate
from Prantl's
from interpretation here
Prantls interpretation here and
and there.
there.
1
'I believe that iii/dram
believe that here is
ivitriCKiv here corruption. The
is aa corruption. "reservation " regarding
The "reservation" regarding
the parallelism between
the parallelism mathematics and
between mathematics natural (or
and natural (or artistic) products I
artistic) products conceive
I conceive
to refer merely
to refer merely to to the fact that,
the fact that, on Aristotle's view,
on Aristotle's necessity in
view, necessity former proceeds
the former
in the proceeds
from the
from denition or
the definition or the
the realized
realized end, in the
while in
end, while the latter
latter itit inheres
inheres in in matter
matter or the
or the
means. Hence
means. Hence in in mathematics
mathematics you you cannot
cannot reason from aa consequent
reason from consequent back back toto the
the
principle,
prmciple, whichwhich is is more
more inclusive
inclusive; and
; and inin physics, since there
physics, since there is free purposive
is free purposive
action, you
action, cannot infer
you cannot infer aa result
result from
from thethe existence
existence of of an
an antecedent.
antecedent. The The fallacy
fallacy
of both
of views is
both views is apparent
apparent: given
: given all the antecedents
all the antecedents and and the the result is assured
result is assured;
given all
given the consequences,
all the consequences, and and thethe principle
principle is established. In
is established. either case
In either the
case the
all " is
" all is the concept or
the concept fact.
or fact.
35cc
3 Gen. Anim.,
See Gen. 742 be 33
Anim., 742 ff.
33 ff.

30
30 CONTINGENT
THE NECESSARY AND THE CONTINGENT
without the
house without
house the stones, nor the
stones, nor saw without
the saw without the
the steel.
steel. Nor yet, in
Nor yet, in
the mathematical
the mathematical instance,
instance, will premises be
the premises
will the true, unless
be true, sum
the sum
unless the
of the
of angles be
the angles equal to
be equal to two
two right ones.
right ones. It
It is evident, then,
is evident, that
then, that
the necessity in
the necessity natural products
in natural products is that of
is that of matter
matter and and its motions.
its motions.
Consequently the
Consequently physical philosopher
the physical philosopher has has to speak both
to speak both of of the free
the free
or final
or cause and
nal cause and of of the necessary or
the necessary or material
material cause,cause, but chiey of
but chiefly of
the former;
the former; for for it it is
is the explanation of
the explanation of matter,
matter, and and not not matter
matter of of
end. The
the end.
the The end end is the purpose
is the purpose and and his starting point
his starting point is the defin-
is the den-
ition or
ition or conception,
conception,just just as as in matters of
in matters of art:
art: since the
since the house
house is such
is such
and such,
and this and
such, this and thatthat means towards its
means towards construction are
its construction necessary,
are necessary,
and since
and since health
health is is peculiarly constituted, that
peculiarly constituted, that andand the the other
other must must
needs take
needs take place
place before
before it can be
it can realized..... Doubtless
be realized Douhtless there there is is
also in
necessity also
necessity the conception.
in the conceptzbn. The The function
function of sawing is
of sawing dened
is defined
as aa particular
as particular kind kind of of cutting.
cutting. This will not
This will not bebe realized, however,
realized, however,
unless
unless the saw have
the saw have teethteeth of of aa definite structure, and
denite structure, and thisthis in
in turn will
turn will
not be
not such unless
be such unless the the sawsaw be made of
be made of steel
steel; for
; certain parts
for certain parts [or [or
nzarizs] enter
marks\ enter into the concept
into the concept as as its matter.
its matter."'
It is
It sufciently clear
is sufficiently clear that Aristotle recognizes
that Aristotle recognizes only conditional or
only aa conditional or
hypothetical necessity
hypothetical necessity in nature in
in nature in soso far
far asas itit proceeds
proceeds purely
purely in in accord-
accord-
with purpose.
ance with
ance purpose. This necessity is
This necessity merely the
is merely the reflex
reex of of the
the stress
stress
in the adjustment of means to ends, and
in the adjustment of means to ends, and since the means constitute since the means constitute
the end
the end theythey are are the object of
the object of free teleological desire
free teleological desire as a-uvacruz'
as o-vvatria'
quite as
quite as much
much as as the
the end end itself, and hence
itself, and hence are are not
not in any true
in any sense
true sense
forced upon
forced upon the the process
process from from without. Aristotle came
without. Aristotle came to to recognize,
recognize,
moreover, at
moreover, at the
the close
close of of the
the above selection, that
above selection, that it is the
it is end which
the end which
conditions the
conditions the necessity
necessity of of the although he
means, although
the means, he hadhad before main-
before main-
tained, and
tained, generally was
and generally was quite consistent in
quite consistent asserting, that
in asserting, that thethe
necessity lay
necessity lay in matter as
in matter as such.
such. It It is obvious that
is obvious that thisthis view alone
view alone
comports with
comports with hishis conception
conception of of purpose,
purpose, and and is is in reality the
in reality the true
true
one.
one.
thought of
This thought
This Aristotles that
of Aristotle's nevertheless matter
that nevertheless matter is is the cause
the cause
of necessity is
of necessity curiously set
is curiously off by
set off his equally rm conviction
by his equally firm conviction that it that it
also the
is also
is source of
the source of all all chance occurrence. In
chance occurrence. In fact
fact it it is only the
is only the
reverse side
reverse side of of the same false
the same false position.
position. Matter, even
Matter, even on on his own
his own
principles, strictly be
cannot strictly
principles, cannot be a cause at
a cause all.3 It
at all.^ It is merely an
is merely an abstrac-
abstrac-
' This
This is only the
is only the logical
logical recognition
recognition ofof the fact pointed
the fact out above,
pointed out above, p. 28, u. 3.
p. 28, u. 3.
2Zeller
= (p. 331,
Zeller (p. n. i)
331, n. has gathered
1) has many passages
gathered many which serve
passages which to illustrate
serve to illustrate
aspect of
this aspect
this necessity.
of necessity.
'See De Gen.
See Be Gen. el
et Corrupt., 324i 18
Corrupt, 324* 7'7 S'6 hr]
)8 : 7 :
'5 iiXij
vKi) J wanrmv.
3hr] iraeiiTiKtii.

1
THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN THE
SYSTEM 31
3
as
tion, as
tion, we have seen,
we have seen, from
from the
the concrete whole of
concrete whole experience, purely
of experience, purely
relative
relative to teleological
the teleological process
to the of
process of means and ends,
means and ends, and serves to
and serves to
designate certain qualities
designate certain qualities as not singly*or
as not singlybor merely
merely in themselves
in themselves
desired, but
desired, but still available for
still available' for recomposition concrete end;
into aa concrete
recomposition into end;
and only
and it becomes
as it
only as as an
hypostatized as
becomes hypostatized an objective
objective entity
entity unrelated
unrelated
to any
to denite pursuit,
any definite can it
pursuit, can it be said to
be said to be the basis
be the all that
of all
basis of that is
is
non-purposive. But
non-purposive. But this
this isis precisely what we
precisely what we have
have remarked
remarked of of Aris-
Aris-
totles
totle's position
position from the
from the beginning,
beginning, as as being
being the the ground
ground of all his
of all his
self-contradictions. All
self-contradictions. appears most
this appears
All this strikingly in
most strikingly second
the second
in the
form of
form necessity which
of necessity which he distinguishes as
he distinguishes as restraint,
"restraint," hindrance,
"hindrance,"
or "resistance."'
or resistance.2 This This amounts,
amounts, in modern psychological
in modern psychological terms, terms,
only to
only to "inhibition,"
inhibition, and and represents
represents the the purely aspect of
negative aspect
purely negative of aa
partial definition of
partial definition of fact.
fact. If, dening aa thing
in defining
If, in thing or an act,
or an we take
act, we take
account of certain as present but not particularly
qualities as present
account of certain qualities but not desirable
particularly desirable
and essential,
and they fall,
essential, they so to
fall, so speak, just
to speak, outside the
just outside eld of
the field distinct
of distinct
vision and
vision and appear later as accidents. But
appear later as accidents. But it is also possible
it is also to ignore
possible to ignore
a factor
a completely in
factor completely in the organization of
the organization of the means to
the means to aa certain
certain
end, and
end, therefore in
and therefore the process
in the process of of its
its realization
realization aa hitch
hitch will occur.
will occur.
Just
Just because
because the
the actual
actual result
result was
was not,
not, in
in anticipation,
anticipation, foreshadowed
foreshadowed
Lcompletely in
^completely the steps
in the steps proposed
proposed for for its
its attainment,
attainment, an element wholly
an element wholly
unexpected and
unexpected and alien
alien to purpose
appears in
the purpose appears
to the in it, which may
it, which may be be ofof
sufcient importance
sufficient importance to frustrate the
to frustrate the expected enjoyment. It
expected enjoyment. It is
is
what the
what Germans so
the Germans so expressively
expressively call call "ein durch die
Strich durch
ein Strich die Rech-
Rech-
nung. Democritus
nung." Democritus was was right when he
right when he said,
said, "Men
Men havehave invented
invented
the image
the image of Fortune to
of Fortune to palliate own imprudence."
their own
palliate their imprudence.
Aristotle distinctly recognizes
Aristotle distinctly recognizes the the relativity
relativity of of this
this inhibition
inhibition
to action
to according to
action according ends.3 It
to ends.^ It would
would havehave no no meaning whatever
meaning whatever
were it
were as the
not as
it not sheer negation
the sheer negation of of purposivencss.
purposiveness. Yet he
Yet he accords
accords
it aa very
it important place
very important place in system, since
his system,
in his since without
without it it he could
he could
IT his is
This what II take
is what to be
take to aspect of
the aspect
be the truth from
of truth which Aristotle's
from which 615mm:
Aristotles Simius
abstracted and
was abstracted
was hypostatized.
and hypostatized.
4 "This form of
=lhis form of necessity
necessity is
is variously denominated by
variously denominated among the
Aristotle; among
by Aristotle; the
expressions
expressions mostmost frequently
frequently occurring are these:
occurring are 16 plaice,
these : ri le, rb
plaiov, la, Whitby, t4
1:) kuKvov, w) iitito- mro-
61;, and
Slôv, and rdrb Ka\vriKbv.
Kathy-ruby.
^Met., 1015 aa 26
3Met., lOlS 26 ff.: ETL Tb pinion
ff.: irirb piaiov ml lo. {sc.
Kal 1] pta
i; (sc.dm'yxa.1ov hyerat) tovto
dvayKatop X^vcrai)' rail-re S' a-rl
5 iarl
'rb
t6 wapd 191v 5)pr ital Tint rpoaipeaiv
irapb, Tijv bpii^v Kal ri/v urolfov xal
wpoalpea'w iîToSlôv KwAv-rtxbv. See
Ital kw\vtik6v. See also
also Phys.,
Phys" 215 215
a, 1:1rpw'roo
a, I: TrpSiTOP piy
piv obv, (in win:
of, irt Klmyots ij13 pif
Trdffa Klvri<ns le 13 Kara
fl iiaw. ivdyKri
Kara. ifiiaiv. drawn) S' do irep
6 &v laws,
rep B1] filaios,
Elva: Kal
ehcu 191v Kari.
Ital T^v Info-iv 7'1 uv
Kara. <t>i<rLV rj yap jSiaios
/iiv yap lmos vapb. away iarlv,
I'd-pd. (piaiv early, 11 Si
fi Wow iaripa
rapt}. ipiaiv
6% irapb, a-rpa.
rs Kark
TTj^ Wow. Other
ice-rd <t>i<nv. important passages
Other important passages are are fhys., 230 a
Phys., 230 a 29 ff., and
29 ff., 255 ih S5 ff.
and 255 if.

32
32 AND THE
NECESSARY AND
THE NECESSARY CONTINGENT
THE CONTINGENT
not account
not for aa potentiality
account for remaining unrealized.
potentiality remaining unrealized. Accordingly
Accordingly
it is
it seen to
is seen to be only the
be only reverse aspect
the reverse aspect of that hypostatized
of that hypostatized availa- availa-
bility for utilization as means in the
bility for utilization as means in the teleological process teleological process which
which we
we
characterized above as the
characterized above as the significance signicance of his of his 325mm;
8uVo/iw or
or 13th}.
v\r). The
The
latter, however,
latter, however, was was previously
previously shown shown to to bebe the prolific parent
the prolic parent of of
chance as the summation of all
chance as the summation of all non-purposiveness non-purposiveness in nature. Quite
in nature. Quite
naturally, therefore,
naturally, Aristotle at
therefore, Aristotle times practically
at times identies chance
practically identifies chance
and necessity.
and necessity.'
We have
We have now now canvassed
canvassed two aspects in
two aspects which the
in which the spectre
spectre of of
necessity
necessity presents
presents itself,
itself, and
and have
have found
found that
that even
even on
on Aristotles
Aristotle's
own showing
own showing they they have
have no no meaning
meaning except except in relation to,
in relation are in
to, are in
fact constituted
fact constituted as functional elements
as functional elements within itself by,
within itself the free
by, the free pur-
pur-
posive process
posive process which distinguishes itself
which distinguishes itself as as means
means and end. But
and end. But
there is
there another sense
is another sense in which he
in which supposes necessity
he supposes necessity to to be ahsolute.
be absolute.'
It
It isis that,
that, in in brief, which is
brief, which eternal. In
is eternal. " In a a word,"
word, he says, " all
he says, all
that necessarily is
exists necessarily
that exists is eternal,
eternal, having neither beginning
having neither beginning nor end.
nor end."'
We seem
We seem to to be listening to
be listening to Plato,
Plato, and and wewe areare not altogether mis-
not altogether mis-
taken. "If
taken. If it is true
it is true to say of
to say of aa given object, he
given object," he writes
writes in another
in another
passage,
passage,* "thatthat it is aa man,
it is man, it necessarily be
must necessarily
it must be a a biped
biped ; for ;
that
for that
is what
is what man' signies. But
man signifies.
' But if this be
if this necessary, itit cannot
be necessary, cannot be be said of
said of
that object that
same object
that same that it it is not aa biped
is not biped ; for;
that is
for that is precisely
precisely what what is is
meant in
meant in saying
saying thatthat itit cannot
cannot but man. " For
he aa man."
but be For the necessary does
the necessary does
admit of
not admit
not of being
being thisthis or imti erently, so
that indifferently,
or that so that
that if if aa thing
thing be be
necessary, it
necessary, cannot be
it cannot be both
both so so and otherwise.5 It
and otherwise."^ is clear
It is that the
clear that the
necessary in
necessary in this sense refers
this sense refers merely
merely to m9 ovrd
the KaB'
to the min-6 or or the
the essence,
essence,
the hypostatized "meaning"
the hypostatized meaning which which Plato sought to
Plato sought to preserve
preserve from from
the mischances of
the mischances our mundane
of our mundane sphere sphere by removing it
by removing it to the intel-
to the intel-
ligible world
ligible world of Ideas. In
of Ideas. In the list of
the list of these immortals Aristotle
these immortals Aristotle
enrolls mathematics
enrolls mathematics and and the highest principles
the highest that are
principles that are discovered discovered
in his
in opinion by
his opinion by a a process
process of of analogical induction which
analogical induction which is is the
the
counterpart of
theoretical counterpart
theoretical of Plato's ight from
Platos flight from the distracting world
the distracting world
of sense. Their
of sense. Their attainment
attainment is in fact
is in so immediate
fact so immediate that that it may be
it may be
See,
See, c. g., Phys.,
2. g., 198 *h i6
Phys., igS E.
16 f.
''Met., 1072 h II
2.41%, 1072 i5 LL: t6
11 [.: Tb ykp dva'yxaioo roaavraxs,
7&1.) dmyKoiov Tb fiiv
roiravToxSs, rb it; in
[tv îg. rapt}. Ti\v
(in irapk 'riyv
tip/1.7611, Tb
opii-fiv, 6% at
Tb Si 015K ivev
oB oiK dvev tA e, t6
'rb eB, 603 pi]
H3 Si vsx/Lewv iWm
fiij ivSexif^vov dhhws dXX' aurhs.
athN dirXus.
3Eth.
ê/i. Nic, 11139
Nz'c., 12 23.
1 39 i 23.
Cf. also De
Cf. also Gen. et
De Gen. et Corrupt., 335 aa 32
Corrupt, 335 32 if., and many
and many
f.,
other passages.
other passages.
4
1006
(Vet, 1006
Met., ii28 ff.
h 28 ff. 5112M,
5 ll,icl., 1010
1 28
010 *h 28 ff.
ff.

IN THE
33
called spiritual
called intuition.
spiritual intuition. We have
We have had had occasion
occasion previously
previously to
to
point out that
point out that thisthis conclusion
conclusion was force upon
was forced Aristotle by
upon Aristotle by hishis
psychology,
psychology, as as thethe direct
direct outgrowth
outgrowth of twofold philosophic
the twofold
of the philosophic
movementthe
movement Socratic and
the Socratic and the Platonicthe
the Platonic results of
the results which he
of which he
inherited. He
inherited. He did did notnot perceive
perceive thatthat thethe distinct subject and
distinct subject and the the
distinct predicate,
distinct predicate, the the percept
percept and and thethe concept,
concept, were were functional
functional
products
products or stages of
or stages one continuous
of one self-reconstructing process
continuous self-reconstructing process of of
intellection. Hence
intellection. Hence he he regarded
regarded both both as immediately "given"
as immediately given and and
nnchangeable. He
unchangeable. He was was only half-aware that
only half-aware these presumtively
that these presumtively
eternal meanings owe
eternal meanings owe their
their perpetuity
perpetuity to the persistence
to the persistence of of pur-
pur-
posive intention, as
posive intention, marking the
as marking the underlying
underlying and fundamental lines
and fundamental lines
of development along
of development along which
which the the intellectual denition of
intellectual definition of experience
experience
is proceeding.
is proceeding.
He did
He did remark,
remark, however,
however, that there is
that there is aa certain similarity in
certain similarity in
respect of the compulsion exercised by the nal
respect of the compulsion exercised by the final cause in nature and cause in nature and
by
by the denition in
the definition mathematics. The
in mathematics.' The process
process of of the
the former
former he he
conceived under
conceived under the form of
the form of time and so
time and so distinguished
distinguished it from the
it from the
latter which
latter which is timeless. Hence
is timeless. Hence he recognized aa certain
he recognized certain reaction
reaction of of
the means in
the means nature upon
in nature upon the the end,
end, but apparently quite
was apparently
but was quite uncon-
uncon-
scious of
scious of any any modification
modication of of mathematical denitions due
mathematical definitions due to to
deductions made
"deductions" made from them. Had
from them. Had he he lived
lived to witness the
to witness the
doubt of
doubt of modern
modern mathematicians
mathematicians as as to the absolute
to the absolute certainty
certainty of of hishis
inference from
inference from the the definition
denition of of aa right
right line, that the
line, that the sumsum of the
of the
angles of
angles of aa plane triangle is
plane triangle is precisely equal to
precisely equal to two right angles,
two right angles, he he
might have
might changed his
have changed attitude toward
his attitude toward necessity.
necessity. If If the con-
the con-
sequent is
sequent deduction from
legitimate deduction
is aa legitimate from the the premiss,
premiss, but but is itself
is itself
possibly false, the
possibly false, absolute validity
the absolute validity of of the
the definition,
denition, in in the form
the form
given it
given in the
it in Euclidean geometry,
the Euclidean geometry, is itself called
is itself called in question. All
in question. All
that can be
that can conveyed by
be conveyed the term
by the necessity, used
term necessity, used of such principles
of such principles
as these,
as these, is,is, therefore,
therefore, that that it expresses the
it expresses the conviction
conviction of of the
the truth
truth of of
fact so far
fact so far asas itit is made out,
is made together with
out, together with thethe lingering
lingering sense sense that that
they are as
they are yet beyond
as yet beyond the the reach
reach of of demonstration.
demonstration. When the the fact
fact
fully ascertained,
is fully
is ascertained, as as was said at
was said the beginning,
at the beginning, it neither may
it neither may be be
nor must be,
nor must be, it simply is.
it simply is. There
There is, therefore, no
is, therefore, no necessity
necessity even even
except that
here, except
here, that which
which is functionally constituted
is functionally constituted by by the the actual
actual
living process
living process of of aa purposive denition of
purposive definition of experience,
experience, and and this,
this, asas
having aa meaning
having meaning or value only
or value only within
within it, so far
is so
it, is from being
far from being a a
1See above, p.
See above, p. n. 2.
29, n.
29, 2.

34
34 THE NECESSARY
contradiction of
contradiction freedom that
of freedom that it becomes
it becomes the the most effective means
most effective means
towards
towards its realization.
its realization.
Now, according to
Now, according to Aristotle,
Aristotle, only only the completed science
the completed science is truly
is truly
apodictic, for
apodictic, only then
for only then would
would phenomena
phenomena be reduced to
be reduced to "laws"
laws
which operate
which invariably. Naturally
operate invariably. Naturally this this holds
holds in his view
in his simply
view simply
of individual sciences
of individual sciences; for,
; with his
for, with doctrine that
his doctrine every discipline
that every discipline
starts from
starts from its its peculiar
peculiar ultimate dpxai', he
ultimate opxai, he had
had not risen to
not risen the con-
to the con-
ception of
ception one concrete
of one concrete principle
principle capable capable of explaining the
of explaining the world.
world.
The consciousness of
The consciousness of the limits of
the limits of science
science in own day
his own
in his day ledled him,
him,
as we
as we have have just seen, to
just seen, to postulate,
postulate, on on the the one one hand, necessary
hand, necessary
rpm-tions which
TrpordtreK which are are exempt
exempt from from the the requirement
requirement of of being
being provedproved
because
because they they are are presuppositions
presuppositions of intelligible experience
of intelligible experience and and
intuitively certain.
intuitively certain. This sense of
This sense of necessity
necessity we we have remarked to
have remarked to bebe
itself hypothetical, since
itself hypothetical, since itit arises
arises in the process
in the process of experimentation,
of experimentation,
when we
when we must regard our
must regard our theory
theory as as absolutely
absolutely true true in order to
in order to test
test
it in its But this same consciousness
application. But this same consciousness of incompleteness
it in its application. of incompleteness
in explanation of
the explanation
in the things showed
of things showed itself itself positively
positively in Aristotles
in Aristotle's
assertion that
assertion knowledge can
that knowledge deal not
can deal not onlyonly with
with the eternal and
the "eternal" and
those phenomena
with those
with phenomena which, like those
which, like those of astronomy, recur
of astronomy, always,
recur always,
but also with
but also with suchsuch as appear ordinarily
as appear ordinarily or or " for
for the most part,
the most part," likelike
those of
those of nature
nature in general. It
in general. It isis toto the the existence
existence of of thisthis ws is inl
Earl.
TO wroAv' that
16 irokv that he he attributes
attributes the the possibility
possibility of of chance
chance and and freedom,
freedom,
and he
and he accounts
accounts for for itit by referring it
by referring it to the incalculable
to the incalculable nature nature of of
matter. Nothing
matter.' Nothing could, apparently, be
could, apparently, more manifest
be more manifest than than thatthat
these two
these aspects, of
two aspects, chance and
of chance and necessity,
necessity, are are purely correlative,
purely correlative,
and both
and equally relative
both equally relative to midway stage
to aa midway stage in science and
in science and the the
growth of
growth of thethe judgment.
judgment." Up to
Up to aa certain
certain point point the the causal
causal
nexus is
nexus complete; beyond
is complete ; beyond that, that, so so farfar as as we
we know,
know, it it maymay as as well
well
be that as
be that this.a It
as this.^ It was
was this
this conviction
conviction that that led Aristotle to
led Aristotle to main-
main-
tain that
tain there are
that there are limits
limits toto proof
proof in direction ; which
either direction
in either ; merely
which merely
states the
states the dilemma
dilemma of common logic
of common logic that that in induction you
in induction you fail
fail ofof
necessary principles,
attaining necessary
attaining principles, and and in deduction there
in deduction remains aa vast
there remains vast
surplus of
surplus of marks which do
marks which do not ow from
not flow from the the premisses.
premisses. And this
And this
break
break in in the logical process
the logical process we we have
have before
before tracedtraced to to thethe psychol-
psychol-
'
ogical abstraction of
ogical abstraction xed percepts
of fixed percepts and and concepts.
concepts.
See
' See on this point,
on this Gesch. der
Prantl, GescA.
point, PrantI, Logih, I,
tier Logik, I, p. 175 ff.
p. 175 ff.
'' 1I borrow
borrow thisthis apt
apt expression from the
expression from the article
article by by Professor Dewey mentioned
Professor Dewey mentioned
above.
above.
35ee Met.,
3See 1027 bh 11.
Met, 1027 11.

;
IN THE
35
As Aristotle seized
As Aristotle seized upon fact of
the fact
upon the of motion as the
nature as
in nature
motion in the
aspect of
aspect fact which
of fact was most
which was for explanation and
fruitful for
most fruitful egtplanation
and defended
defended
though rather
it, though
it, unsuccessfully from
rather unsuccessfully from the logical standpoint,
the logical standpoint, against
against
the arguments
the arguments of Zeno, so
of Zeno, so he
he bent
bent allall his
his energies vindicat-
toward vindicat-
energies toward
ing mans freedom
ing man's freedom in action. Human
in action. Human actionaction is him only
to him
is to only aa higher
higher
form of
form that purposive
of that purposive movementmovement from from potentiality
potentiality to actuality
to actuality
which appears throughout
which appears throughout nature. nature. Its Its distinguishing
distinguishing characteristics
characteristics
are consciousness
are consciousness and and chiefly
chiey intelligence.
intelligence. Man Man is constituted of
is constituted of
soul and
soul and body,body, thethe soulsoul being
being the entelechy or
the entelechy or realization
realization of of the
the
bodys
body's possibilities.
possibilities. As such
As such it
it belongs
belongs to that class
to that class ofof beings which,
beings which,
as "form,"
as form," are are initial causes of
initial causes nal or
of final or purposive
purposive action.action. When When
one has
one traced aa train
has traced train of causation back
of causation back to to aa human
human being,
being, oneone has
has
come to
come to the limit of
the limit of his enquiry: his
his enquiry : his being
being a a man
man is sufcient
is sufficient
explanation for
explanation for thethe origination
origination of of the act. The
the act. reason, more
The reason, more
specically, why
specifically, it is useless to continue
why it is useless to continue the quest, the that, being
quest, is that,
is being
rational, man
rational, man hashas within
within him him thethe capacity
capacity of contradictory actions
of contradictory actions;
is the
it is
for it
for the characteristic
characteristic of of reason,
reason, as as against irrational Swajueis,
against irrational to
Smiling, to
take cognizance of
take cognizance of opposites,
opposites, thoughthough it grasp the
does grasp
it does the real more
real more
rmly than
firmly than the the unreal.'
unreal. Thus, Thus, while while aa physical Sui/ants, say
physical Svra./u$, the
say the
potentially
potentially warm, warm, can develop only
can develop only into
into the actually warm,
the actually warm, and and will
will
immediately do
immediately do so so unless
unless there
there is some external
is some external hindrance,
hindrance, the the
physician,
physician, or or the
the art art of medicine, being
of medicine, Swaiuas, can
rational Svi/a/icis,
being rational can pro-
pro-
duce health
duce health or sickness. It
or sickness. is to
It is aspect of
this aspect
to this mans nature,
of man's nature, then,
then,
that Aristotle makes
that Aristotle makes appeal appeal in order to
in order freedom in
defend freedom
to defend action.2
in action."
Since human
Since human beings
beings are subject to
are subject to no external constraint,
no external constraint, and and pos-
pos-
sess an
sess an equal
equal capacity
capacity for for doing
doing things contradictorily opposed
things contradictorily opposed one one
to the
to other, predetermination
the other, predetermination at at least
least is excluded.
is excluded.
anxious as
But, anxious
But, Aristotle is
as Aristotle is to maintain at
to maintain all hazards
at all hazards this exemp-
this exemp-
tion external compulsion,
from external
tion from compulsion, he he byby nono means
means teaches
teaches indetermin-
indetermin-
ism in
ism the modern
in the sense. Freedom
modern sense. Freedom with with him means primarily
him means primarily the the
freedom of
freedom of reason,
reason, not that of
not that of thethe " will,"
will," forfor hehe had
had not attained
not attained
to the
to scholastic pigeon-hole
the scholastic pigeon-hole doctrine doctrine of of independent faculties.
independent faculties.
The
The willwill oror choice,^
choice,3 rather,
rather, is is aa function
function of of intellection,
intellection, and and hence,
hence,
' On
On the rational and
the rational ood/Lets see
irrational Swd/ias
and irrational see Met, 1046 aa 36
Me/., 1046 36 ff.
ff.
2The whole
'The case of
whole case of Swifteu nerd. 'Kiyov
uvdum juerd Myou and the indifference
and the indifference supposed to
supposed to
result from them
result from them isis plainly one more
plainly one more instance
instance ofof the
the fallacy of the
fallacy o the Plularity of
Plularity of
Causes.
Causes.
3Aristotle calls
Âristotle calls it
it irpoalpejis, and the
npoalpea'ts, and the subject is treated
subject is at great
treated at the
in the
length in
great length
Nic. especially in
Ethics, especially
JVic. Ethics, in Book 111.
Book III. ~

36
36 THE NECESSARY
reason
since reason
since is the
is highest realization
the highest realization of of human
human capacities,
capacities, men'smens
will be
actions will
actions truly free,
be truly his sense,
in his
free, in only
sense, only when they
when they areare wholly
wholly
governed by
governed rational purpose.
by rational purpose. Consistently
Consistently with with thethe views
views of of
Socrates and
Socrates and Plato, therefore makes
Aristotle therefore
Plato, Aristotle freedom virtually
makes freedom virtually an an
ideal rather
ideal rather thanthan an actual posession
an actual posession of of the majority of
the majority of mankind,
mankind,
and to
and to that extent, it
that extent, may safely
it may safely be the Stoics
said, the
be said, concurred with
Stoics concurred with
him. So
him. So long
long as we confine
as we conne our our inquiry
inquiry to his intention,
to his there can-
intention, there can-
not be
not be much difculty in
much difificulty in hishis doctrine
doctrine; but
; but we we shall nd that
shall find that hishis
psychology
psychology conflicted hopelessly with
conicted hopelessly with thethe conditions
conditions essential
essential to to
the problem
the problem of freedom in
of freedom action. Yet
in action. Yet this
this is only what
is only what was was to to
have been
have expected after
been expected after whatwhat hashas previously
previously been been saidsaid of his
of his
fundamental dualism,'
fundamental dualism,l which which here here manifests
manifests itselfitself almost
almost as as clearly
clearly
as in
as in his Logic.
his Logic.
According to
According Aristotles system
to Aristotle's system of development, there
of development, there mustmust be be
a constant progress
a constant progress from from sensation
sensation to mediated by
reason, mediated
to reason, imagina-
by imagina-
tion, memory and
tion, memory and reflection,
reection, in which series
in which series the lower is
the lower always the
is always the
" matter "
matter to the
" to the "formform " appearing
appearing in the next
in the next higher.
higher. The The voDsvoiis
or reason,
or reason, as as thethe highest
highest of of all, that which
and that
all, and which most truly consti-
most truly consti-
tutes aa man,
tutes man, is course the
of course
is of form par
the "iorm" excellence. Not
par excellence. Not to mention
to mention
difculties which
other difficulties
other which crop crop out out just here in
just here in superabundance,
superabundance, the the
as
voile, as pure
voOs, pure form, can consistently act only
form, can consistently act as the nal cause
only as th.^. final cause of the of the
body, while the
body, while the pleasure-pains,
pleasure-pains, giving giving rise to desires,
rise to must take
desires, must take the the
place
place of the mechanical
of the mechanical cause. cause. The The latter,
latter, to to use Kants language,
use Kant's language,
are blind
are "blind" without without the inuence of
the influence of intellect,
intellect, the the reason,
reason, on on thethe
other hand,
other hand, is is "empty,
empty," withoutwithout receiving
receiving aa contentcontent from from them.them.
This is
This recurrence of
only aa recurrence
is only of our old problem
our old problem that that all
all the teleology
the teleology
found in
is found
is the end,
in the end, all all the efciency at
the efficiency the beginning
at the beginning of of the
the series.
series.
Yet the
Yet reason is
the reason said to
is said to be rightful ruler
the rightful
be the over the
ruler over the irrational
irrational desires,
desires,
though they
though they only
only too frequently revolt
too frequently revolt and carry the
and carry day. The
the day. The diffi-
dif-
culty is
culty is increased,
increased, rather rather than diminished, by
than diminished, by a division in
a division in the rea-
the rea-
son itself.
son itself. Situated
Situated as as it
it is as the
is as the coping-stone,
coping-stone, so so to
to speak,
speak, of of the
the
two-fold edifice
two-fold edice of mans nature,
of man's consisting of
nature, consisting of the
the cognitive
cognitive and and thethe
motive elements,
motive elements, it called into
is called
it is requisition both
into requisition both for theory and
for theory and forfor
practice.
practice. Since, then,
Since, Aristotle inherited
then, Aristotle inherited the intellectualism of
the intellectualism of
Socrates, aggravated
Socrates, aggravated in in the the philosophy
philosophy of of Plato,
Plato, he naturally
he naturally
ranked the
ranked theoretical reason
the theoretical reason above above thethe practical,
practical, and and with
with so so dis-
dis-
tinct aa bias
tinct bias in in itsits favor
favor it was but
it was natural that
but natural that he distinguished it
he distinguished it
On
' On the
the following
following see see Zeller,
Zeller, pp. 592 ff.
pp. 592f.

THE
IN THE
37
completely from
completely from the latter. So
the latter. So far did he
far did he proceed
proceed alongalong this this path,
path,
that he
that he marked
marked it it off
off completely from. the remainder
completely fromthe remainder of mans
of man's
soul and,
soul like God
and, like God in in the macrocosm, called
the macrocosm, called thethe theoretical
theoretical reason
reason
xwpw-rs, " apart,"
X^pttTTos, apart," as as entering
entering into man from
into man without.
from without.
Thus secluded
Thus secluded and and undisturbed
undisturbed in its blissful
in its blissful andand eternal con-
eternal con-
templation, the
templation, the active reason is,
active reason in its
is, in relation to
its relation to thethe concrete
concrete
human life,
human life, aa precise analogue of
precise analogue God in
of God reference to
in reference the world.'
to the world.
It is
It only part
the only
is the part of man that
of man could properly
that could dene his
properly define duty, but
his duty, but
its dictum
its dictum couldcould be be at most aa blank
at most blank categorical imperative, with
categorical imperative, with
no specifications
no specications and and with
with nono power
power to secure its
to secure enforcement in
its enforcement in
conduct. The
conduct. The passive reason was
passive reason was aa mere
mere stop-gap introduced sur-
stop-gap introduced sur-
reptitiously to
reptitiously to perform
perform the the impossible
impossible office ofce of mediator. Just
of mediator. Just
will or choice related
how will or choice is related to it Aristotle fails to tell us, possibly
how is to it Aristotle fails to tell us, possibly
because
because he he could
could give give no no answer.
answer. Zeller
Zeller hashas pointed
pointed out out thethe hope-
hope-
less breach
less breach in the system
in the system at this point,
at this point, and scholars have
and scholars essayed in
have essayed in
vain to
vain construct aa consistent
to construct consistent and and intelligible theory
intelligible theory of volition on
of volition on
the basis
the basis ofof thethe various assertions scattered
various assertions through the
scattered through the works
works of of
Aristotle. The
Aristotle. The crucial
crucial question
guestion is is whether
whether volition,
volition, as function of
as aa function of
reason, can
reason, have efficiency
can have eciency in in initiating
initiating activity, this question
and this
activity, and question mustmust
answered in
he answered
be the negative."
in the negative.2
While thus
While thus it appears that
it appears that Aristotle's cosmological and
Aristotles cosmological and psycho-
psycho-
logical arguments for
logical arguments for freedom,
freedom, if we may
if we may soso call them, both
call them, were
both were
doomed to
doomed failure because
to failure because of the presuppositions
of the presuppositions of of hishis system
system
with its
with unresolved dualism,
its unresolved dualism, he he was still far
was still far from abandoning its
from abandoning its
defense. In
defense. In thethe ninth ninth chapter
chapter of of the
the work
work De De Inter
Interpretatione3
pretatione^
another direction
another direction was taken. The
was taken. The Principle
Principle of Contradiction, or
of Contradiction, or
' The
' The relation of the active reason
reason to God
relation of the active has been
God hasto perhaps of more
been the subject perhaps more
the subject of
discussion than
discussion than other question
any other
any question arising from Aristotle's
arising from system.
Aristotles system. It occupied
It occupied
the thoughts
the chiey perhaps
thoughts chiefly of mediaeval
perhaps of mediaeval philosophers,
philosophers, but the Neo-Platonists
but the also
Neo-Platonists also
made much
made much ot it. Aristotle's
of it. Aristotles successor, Theophrastus, was
successor, Theophrastus, was certainly
certainly among
among thethe
rst to
first to notice
notice itit particularly,
particularly, and and it appears to
it appears to meme not
not unlikely that the
unlikely that Pseudo-
the Pseudo-
Platonic dialogue
Platonic Alcibiades I,
dialogue Alcibiades which Proclus
on which
I, on wrote an
Proclus wrote commentary,
elaborate commentary,
an elaborate
treated of
covertly treated
covertly of it in the
it in discussion of
the discussion of the
the empirical
empirical and the absolute
and the absolute self,
self, under
under
the analogy
the analogy of of the eye-seeing eye.
the eye-seeing eye.
2See Zeller,
See Zeller, pp. 598601. Heman,
pp. 598-601. Heman, Des Des Aristoteles
Aristoteles Lehre van der
Lehre von Freiheit des
der Freiheit des
menschlichen Willens,
menschlichen Willem, Leipzig, 1887, has
Leipzig, 1887, has summed
summed up his subject
up his very well
subject very well in the
in the
main; but
main he has
but he
; has tried
tried to obviate difficulties
to obviate difculties raised
raised by (p. 599,
Zeller (p.
by Zeller nn. 33 and
599, nn. and 4),
4),
and in
and so doing
in so doing has shown that
has shown he has
that he yet grasped
not yet
has not grasped the logic of
the logic Aristotles
of Aristotle's
position.
position. See particularly p.
See particularly 40, note;
p. 40, note pp.
; 98 ff.;
pp. 98 and p.
ff.; and 103.
p. 103.
3The
3 genuineness of
The genuineness of this
this brief
brief logical and grammatical
logical and treatise has
grammatical treatise has been
been

;;
38
38 NECESSARY AND THE CONTINGENT
THE NECESSARY CONTINGENT
more specically the

more specifically of the
law of
the law Excluded Middle,
the Excluded Middle, because
because ofof its
its
assertion that
assertion of two
that of two perfectly statements one
contradictory statements
perfectly contradictory must be
one must be
true and
true and the
the other false, might
other false, might; be employed to
be employed to uphold to
fatalism, to
uphold fatalism,
exclusion of
the exclusion
the of all freedom, chance
all freedom, chance or or indifference.
indifference. Hence Hence an an
exception to
exception to application is
its application
its made in
is made favor of
in favor particular judg-
of particular judg-
ments relative
ments relative to futurity. Of
to futurity. Of thethe past or present
past or present it it isis unreservedly
unreservedly
true that the
true that the validity of one
validity of one contradictory excludes
contradictory excludes that of that of the other ;
the other
but to extend this
but to extend this proposition so as to cover
proposition so as to cover future events wouldfuture events would
lead
lead to patent
to absurdity.
patent absurdity. Truth and
Truth and falsity are
falsity are terms applicable
terms applicable
only to
only to judgments,
judgments, and and appeal
appeal must must be made in
be made the last
in the resort to
last resort to
fact.
fact. In respect
In respect of
of what
what is still to come there exists
is still to come there exists as yet no test as yet no test;
therefore it
therefore it is, indeed, quite
is, indeed, admissible to
quite admissible to assert that an
assert that event will
an event will
or will
or will not occur, but
not occur, since it
but since it is not apparent
is not apparent which alternative is
which alternative to
is to
be substantiated by
be substantiated by thethe actual
actual result,
result, it cannot be
it cannot conceded that
be conceded that
either of
either of the
the two assertions,
two assertions, " it
it will occur, or.
will occur," "it will
or, it will not not occur,"
occur,
propounded
propounded separately, expresses truth
separately, expresses truth or or fact.
fact. All All that that it would
it would
be strictly allowable
be strictly allowable to say is
to say that the
is that event is
the event is in
in prospect,
prospect,^ not that
not that
it will be.
it will be. To say more
To say more would
would be be presumption.
presumption.
It
" It isis indeed necessary that
indeed necessary that that
that which
which is should be
is should when it
be when it is,
is,
and that
and which is
that which should not
not should
is not not be when it
be when it is
is not, yet it
not, yet is not
it is nec-
not nec-
essary that
essary everything which
that everything which is should transpire,
is should transpire, nor nor that everything
that everything
which is
which not should
is not should not not transpire
transpire ; for; for it
it is
is not same to
the same
not the say that
to say that
everything necessarily
everything necessarily is when it
is when it is and to
is and assert in
to assert in general
general that that
everything is
everything necessarily. These
is necessarily." These words' sufciently indicate
words2 sufiiciently indicate Aris-
Aris-
totles thought.
totle's thought. To To saysay that
that aa thing
thing is is necessary
necessary means means only only that
that itit
is just
is what it
just what it is and nothing
is and nothing else,else, andand entitles
entitles one one in in nono way
way to to
infer how
infer how it came to
it came to be.
be. In other
In other words,
words, the the Principles
Principles of Contra-
of Contra-
diction and
diction and of the Exclded
of the Exclded Middle Middle have have valuevalue onlyonly withinwithin the the
judgment,
judgment, which which is teleological process.
itself aa teleological
is itself process. Both serve
Both serve only
only
draw the
to draw
to legitimate or
the legitimate or implied
implied inferences
inferences from from the the Principle
Principle of of
Identity. This
Identity. This principle
principle meansmeans merelymerely that that A, analyzed as
A, analyzed as means
means
or percept
or percept and and synthesized
synthesized as as endend or or concept,
concept, is is just equal to
just equal to oror
valid for A: as
valid for A : as means
means constituting
constituting the the end,
end, A as as subject,
subject, must must be be
called in
called in question
question ; but,
; whatever the
but, whatever the fact may be
fact may in regard
be in to its
regard to authorship, there
its authorship, there
can be
can no doubt
be no as to
doubt as to its representing
its Aristotelian doctrine
representing Aristotelian doctrine on this point.
on this point.
' So
So II prefer to render
prefer to render in lihher as
(in iiiKKei as opposed
opposed to to in Sir-rat in
(in itrrai De Gener.
in De Gener. et Cor-
et Cor-
rupt, 337 *h 33 f.
rupt, 337 ft. At any rate
At any rate it
it is
is clear it is
that it
clear that is intended
intended to convey the
to convey idea o
the idea of
indeniteness and
indefiniteness the possibility
and the possibility ofof change. Compare De
change. Compare De Interpr.,
Interpr., iga 7 ff.
19 a jS.
' De Interpret.,
2 De Interpret, ig 23 ff.
19 aa 23 ff.

IN THE
39
taken to
taken to be for the
equivalent for
be equivalent nonce to
the nonce to just A, the end. On
just A, the end.
On reflec-
reec-
one sees
tion one
tion sees that
that it cannot be
it cannot he non-A,
non-A, which states the
which states Principle of
the Principle of
Contradiction, and
Contradiction, and that there is
that there neither *n B,
is neither B, nor in
nor in any other
in any non-
other non-
A, term or
middle term
A, aa middle or anything outside of
anything outside A that
of A can stand
it can
that it stand for,
for,
which formulates the
which formulates Principle of
the Principle Excluded Middle.
the Excluded
of the Middle. ButBut since
since
these principles,
these one
principles, one and all,
and all, arise in the
arise in denition of
the definition ends, it
of ends, it is
is
absurd to
absurd to turn them against
turn them against free teleology in
free teleology order to
in order hypostatize
to hypostatize
the necessity
the which is
necessity which only functional
is only functional in
in its
its progress.
progress.' Aristotles
Aristotle's
failure to
failure to appreciate
appreciate this him into
fact led
this fact led
him his untenable
into his untenable position as
position as
to distinction in
to aa distinction in respect
respect to and is
to time,
time,
and one more
is one illustration of
more illustration of
his tendency
his toward an
tendency toward abstract and
an abstract and formal
formal view thinking. II
of thinking.
view of
may here
may here quote Mr. Bosanquet:"
from Mr.
quote from Schopenhauer rightly
Bosanquet : "Schopenhauer rightly
maintains that absolute
maintains that ahsolute necessity
necessity is aa contradictio
contraa'ictio in aay'ecto, because
in adjecto, because
. .
is
all necessity is
all necessity is ^^ hypothesiconditional.
ex A_y/JA4M/ conditional. . .
. Absolute
.
Absolute necessity
necessity
was aa false
was false ideal, and produced
ideal, and produced a fallacious preference
a fallacious preference of of necessity
necessity
to reality. For
to reality. For apart, necessity is
part, necessity
2. higher point
is aa higher point ofof view
view than mere
than mere
perceptive reality, because
perceptive reality, necessity involves
because necessity relation to
involves relation the whole,
to the whole,
whereas perceptive
whereas reality, being
perceptive reality, isolated, is
being isolated, only formal
is only formal or or poten-
poten-
tial reality. For
tial reality. For the
the whole, reality is
whole, reality higher point
is aa higher point of of view than
view than
necessity, for
necessity, reality is
for reality is its self-dependence as
its self-dependence as aa whole, neces-
while neces-
whole, while
sity would
sity would at once depress
at once depress it into aa part.
it into part."
Aristotle makes
Aristotle makes muchmuch use,use, inin the argument to
the argument which we
to which have
we have
just referred, of
just referred, the existence
of the existence of an oTrorep'
of an 'rvxs or
rrrep Ituxe or the
the indifference
indifference
chance.3 Its
of chance.^
of existence is
Its existence due, as
is due, as wewe have seen, to
have seen, the nature
to the nature ofof
that potentiality
that which
potentiality which inheres
inheres primarily in matter, but
primarily in matter, but it finds itsit nds its
fullest expression
fullest expression in in human action. Nevertheless
human action. Nevertheless he he cannot conceal
cannot conceal
the that there
fact that
the fact there areare varying
varying degrees
degrees of of probability
probability as as well
well inin
respect of
respect truth as
of truth as also
also inin the courses which
the courses which men men are
are likely to pur-
likely to pur-
sue. The
sue.* The former
former is so manifestly
is so contradiction of
manifestly aa contradiction the possibility
of the possibility
of pure
of indifference that
pure indifference that wewe may
may pass
pass it it by further notice.
without further
by without notice.
But even the
But even the indeterminism
indeterminism in moral action,
in moral which is
action, which thus practi-
is thus practi-
cally asserted,
cally asserted, is decidedly limited
is decidedly limited in in its scope by
its scope considera~
two considera-
by two
On
' the meaning
On the meaning of of the
the Principle of Contradiction
Principle of Contradiction and the law
and the law ofof the
the
Excluded Middle,
Excluded in their
Middle, in relations to
their relations to the
the Principle of Identity,
Principle of Bosan-
compare Bosan-
Identity, compare
quets Logic,
quet's II, pp.
Logic, II, 205 ff.
pp. 205 ff. ItIt will
will be
be readily seen how
readily seen statement difiEers
how my statement from
differs from
Mr. Bosanquet's.
Mr. Bosanquets.
Îbid., p.
int, p. 2! 3.
Z13.
3See
3 above, p.
See above, 25 ff.
p. 25 ff.
See De
4 See
< Interpret., to
De Interpret, a
19 a ff.
20 ff.

40
40 THE NECESSARY
THE CONTINGENT
tions.
tions. In the
In the rst place,
firstplace, in so far
in so as acts
far as are truly
acts are truly free
free they are
they are
intentional,
intentional, and as
and as such
such they are subject
they are subject toto the regulation of
the regulation of the
the
reason. But
reason. But onon the
the other
other hand, are originally
habits are
though habits
hand, though originally due
due
to purposive
to action, they
purposive action, may become
they may become so xed that
so fixed they control
that they control
conduct to
conduct the exclusion
to the exclusion of momentary interference
of aa momentary interference of rational
of rational
preference.
preference. Hence we
Hence we see
see even
even here the beginnings
here the beginnings of that break
of that break
mans active
in man's
in which led
nature which
active nature led in
in the end to
the end such paradoxes
to such paradoxes as as aa
will not
will not cooperating
cotiperating in an act
in an free from
act free from external compulsion and
external compulsion and
a noumenal
a noumenal freedom
freedom setset over against phenomenal
over against necessity.
phenomenal necessity.
Now these patent
Now these inconsistencies could
patent inconsistencies could not escape detection
not escape detection in in
vigorous intellectual
the vigorous
the activity at
intellectual activity Athens.
at Athens. And among
And among all all the
the
difcult and
difficult and vague
vague conceptions
conceptions in Aristotelian system
the Aristotelian
in the system none was
none was
so shifting
so shifting and and impossible
impossible to grasp as
to grasp as that
that of of potentiality.
potentiality. It
It
appears in a different
appears in a thousand different forms,
thousand and was
forms, and was conceded by conceded Aris-
by Aris-
totle to
totle to be many cases
in many
be in metaphorical; yet
cases metaphorical ;
yet it compelled to
is compelled
it is do
to do
service in all of the most trying
service in all of the most trying situations. situations. Hence it formed
Hence it formed the the
natural point
natural point of attack for
of attack all opponents
for all opponents of his doctrine.
of his doctrine. Among Among
these
these we
we have
have to mention chiey the Stoics who virtually
to mention chiefly the Stoics who virtually denied the denied the
existence of
existence the contingent
of the contingent and reduced all
and reduced all things
things to necessity.
to necessity.
Everything in
Everything system emphasizes
their system
in their emphasizes the reality of
the reality of anan universal
universal
law which
law which maintains
maintains the order of
the order of the
the world
world amid
amid the the flux
ux andand flow
ow
of particular
of things. This
particular things. appears in
This appears in its
its most characteristic form
most characteristic form
their Logic.
in their
in Logic. The categorical judgment
The categorical judgment is is nono longer
longer the type,
the type,
and the
and only forms
the only forms of of syllogism
syllogism whichwhich they appear to
they appear consid-
have consid-
to have
were the
ered were
ered hypothetical and
the hypothetical and the disjunctive. In
the disjunctive. In like
like manner
manner
they identified
they identied the denition and
the definition and the the concept
concept and regarded the
and regarded the
particular only as
particular only as subsumed
subsumed under under the the general.'
general. There There can can be no
be no
reasonable doubt
reasonable doubt as as to the meaning
to the meaning of this. The
all this.
of all The keynote
keynote to the
to the
system of
system of the
the earlier Stoics is
earlier Stoics is their earnestness, their
moral earnestness,
their moral intense
their intense
preoccupation
preoccupation with with an ideal. If
an ideal. If wewe keep this in
keep this in mind
mind it it will far
go far
will go
explaining their
toward explaining
toward their philosophy.
philosophy. Suppose that
Suppose schoolboy is
that aa schoolboy is
homesick and
homesick and wants
wants to his parents
visit his
to visit during the
parents during the approaching
approaching
holidays : how
holidays :how he he will husband the
will husband money necessary
the money necessary to to his
his purpose!
purpose!
This desperate
This clutching of
desperate clutching of the means is
the means what II suppose
is what suppose their their mate-
mate-
rialism and
rialism and its sensationalism to
accompanying sensationalism
its accompanying stand for,
to stand and the
for, and the
eager pursuit
eager pursuit of of their
their endend represents
represents their their teleology.
teleology. The stress of
The stress of
means and
adjusting means
adjusting and endend shows
shows itself
itself in the law
in the law of fate, which
of fate, which was
was
xSee
' Prantl, Gesch.
See PrantI, aer Logik,
Gesch. der I, p.
Logih, I, 426.
p. 426.

1
THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN THE
SYSTEM 41
4
not, their thought,

in their
not, in thought, a limitation so
a limitation so much
much as as anan index
index to duty.
to duty.
In this
In closed and
this closed and taut-drawn
taut-drawn system
system o| of means
means and end there
and end there can
can
be
be no duplicity of
no duplicity of reference
reference nornor ambiguity
ambiguity in Everything
action. Everything
in action.
merely potential
merely potential \% excluded.
is excluded.'
Now,
Now, it was in
it was this effort
in this effort onon the
the part
part ofof the Stoics to
the Stoics correlate
to correlate''
and organize
and organize thethe world
world of of fact completely in
fact Completely one homogeneous
in one homogeneous
system, that
system, they naturally
that they naturally camecame to to view individual inferences
View individual inferences as as
interdependent, and so they dwelt, as I have said, all
interdependent, and so they dwelt, as I have said, all but exclusively but exclusively
on hypothetical
on hypothetical disjunctive syllogisms. This
disjunctive syllogisms. seems so
This seems so clearly
clearly thethe
expression of
expression of their
their standpoint
standpoint that that we cannot understand
we cannot why
understand why Prantl Prantl
should have
should have regarded
regarded theirtheir logic
logic as as aa mere formalization of
mere formalization of the
the
Peripatetic.3 Another,
Peripatetic Another, and and aa most
most significant, result of
signicant, result their merg-
of their merg-
the particular
ing the
ing moment in
particular moment in the
the all-inclusive system, was
all-inclusive system, was that they
that they
thus broke
thus down the
broke down the conventional distinctions of
conventional distinctions of time
time into
into past,
past,
present, and future,
present, and nding the
future, finding the meaning
meaning of within the
all within
of all the present.
present.*
We noticed before
We noticed
' that chance
before that chance represents only that
represents only that surplus
surplus ofof means
means to to aa
given end
given which
end which connoted by
is connoted
is the term
by the aweenkbs or
term <n;/xj3e/3;K6s or what is purely
what is indiffer-
purely indiffer-
ent.
ent. Just this fiction
Just this ction destroyed by
is destroyed
is viewing the
by viewing the whole
whole as as one system. The
one system. The par-
par-
is thus
ticular is
ticular thus accounted
accounted of of only in relation
only in relation to to the
the universal,
universal, asas the Stoics practi-
the Stoics practi-
cally did. Besides
cally did. Besides the
the concept is only
concept is an incomplete
only an denition of
incomplete definition of aa particular, and
particular, and
when the
when the particular
particular as such vanishes
as such vanishes in in the
the whole
whole thethe completed is the
concept is
completed concept the
denition"
definition..
If, as it
' If, as it would seem probable
would seem from all
probable from all accounts, Stoics meant
the Stoics
accounts, the meant "correla-
correla-
tion "
tion by
by their fourth category
their fourth category (vpbi
(npbs 'n
ti irrijs 'e'xou linoxeluevovthe
notbv ivomlfuivov
1rd): ^x'"' iroAv examples
the examples
are parent
given are
given parent and child, right
and child, and
right and left), this
left), this also
also would'be an interesting
would be an interesting
evidence of
evidence their desire
of their to put
desire to into aa closed
everything into
put everything closed system for aa fact
system;; for fact was
was sup-
sup
posed
posed to to be
be completely dened only
completely defined only when
when stated in that
stated in category.
that category.
3Prantl,
3 c. p.
o. c,
Prantl, 0. speaking of
402, speaking
p. 402, of the
the logic of the
logic of Stoics and
the Stoics Epicureans, says:
and Epicureans, says :
Darum beruhen
"Darum beruhen auchauch inin Bezug auf die
Bezug auf die Logik alle Verschlechteningen,
Logik alle Verschlechterungen, welche welche
uns von
uns von hier
hier an
an durchgreifend
durchgreifend begegnen, nicht mehr,
begegnen, nicht mehr, wiewie bei den alteren
bei den alteren Peripa-
Peripa-
tetikem, in
tetikem, in einer unbewussten Schwache
einer unbewussten Schw'ache derder Spekulation
Spekulation in Bezug auf
in Bezug anf Zusam-
Znsam-
menhang und
menhang Bedeutung der
und Bedeutung der aristotelischen Gesammt-Philosophie, sondern
aristotelischen Gesammt-Fhilosophie, sondern in in den
den
positiven Versttissen einer
positiven Verstossen Richtnng, welche
einer Richtung, welche blossbloss den subjectiv-praktischen
den subjectiv-praktischen
Bediirfnissen durch
Bediirfnissen durch doctrinares Gerede geniigen
doctrin'ares Gerede 11nd fiir
will, und
geniigen will, welche daher
fiir welche daher dasdas
platonischaristotelische Princip einer
platonisch-aristotelische Princip Init der
einer mit der Philosophic
Philosophie Hberhaupt
iiherhaupt verkniipften
verhniipen
Logih gar
Logik nicht vorhanden
gar nicht is . Surely
vorhanden isi." such aa view
Surely such view of of the
the history
history ofof thought
thought is is
fully as formal
fully as formal as as Prantl would represent
Prantl would represent the
the logic
logic ofof the Stoics to
the Stoics to be.
be. It seems
It seems
me that
to me
to that this subject deserves
this subject more sympathetic
deserves more sympathetic treatment, however great
treatment, however the
great the
formalism was
formalism which they
was which they introduced
introduced into the doctrine
into the doctrine of of the syllogism. Victor
the syllegism. Victor
Brochard, Sur
Brochard, Sur la Logique des
la Logique des Stoi'ciens, in the
Stoiciens, in Archiv f.
the Arckiv Geseh. der
f. Gesch. der Philosophic,
Philosophie, V, V,
1892, pp.
1892, 449 ff.,
pp. 449 ff., has
has treated of Stoic
treated of Stoic nominalism
nominalism quite appreciatively.
quite appreciatively.
On this,
4 On
* see Prantl,
this, see Prantl, p. note 136,
451, note
p. 451, and p.
136, and 459.
p. 459.

42
When this
When this view
View was once taken,
was once is clear
it is
taken, it that they
clear that had to
they had attack
to attack
Aristotles exception
Aristotle's exception to the law
to the of the
law of Excluded Middle.
the Excluded Middle. This they
This they
and thereafter
did, and
did, thereafter this
this topic formed the
topic formed the principal
principal point
point of con-
of con-
tention between
tention between the Stoics who
the Stoics employed it
who employed it to establish their
to establish their
thorough-going fatalism,
thorough-going and their
fatalism, and opponents, who
their opponents, sought to
who sought to defend
defend
freedom of
freedom of action.'
action. Among those defenders of
those defenders freedom against
of freedom against the the
arguments of
arguments the Stoics
of the are to
Stoics are to be numbered not
be numbered only the
not only Peripa-
the Peripa-
tetics, Academics, and
tetics, Academics, Sceptics, but
and Sceptics, also the
but also the Epicureans;
Epicureans and and thethe ;
that Epicurus"
fact that
fact himself found
Epicurus" himself found it necessary to
it necessary his stand
take his
to take stand
expressly with
expressly with Aristotle, shows that
Aristotle, shows that the
the Stoics
Stoics must have assumed
must have assumed
this position
this from the
position from the beginning.3
beginning.'
Among the
Among arguments most
the arguments frequently urged
most frequently the Stoic
against the
urged against Stoic
doctrine of
doctrine of fatalism was the
fatalism was so-called \oyos
the so-called dpys, namely,
)toyos d/>yos, that the
namely, that the
principle would lead
principle would lead toto sloth, since action
sloth, since action andand prudence would be
prudence would be
Aristotle himself
unavailing. Aristotle
unavailing. himself adduces
adduces thisthis consideration,*
consideration, for for he
he isis
interested in
supremely interested
supremely deliberate conduct.
in deliberate Accordingly, the
conduct. Accordingly, fact
the fact
of deliberation,
of weighing of
the weighing
deliberation, the of means, occupies aa great
means, occupies great share
share of of his
his
1This
' fact is
This fact shown not
is shown not only
only by the frequency
by the frequency with with which
which mention
mention is is made
made of of
the law
the of Excl.
law of Middle in
Excl. Middle in all of the
all of the rather voluminous writings
rather voluminous of the
writings of ancients
the ancients on
on
the subjects
the subjects of of Fate,
Fate, Divine
Divine Foreknowledge,
Foreknowledge, Divination, Astrology, etc.,
Divination, Astrology, etc., but also
but also
by the importance
by the attached to
importance attached Aristotles dictum
to Aristotle's dictum by all of
by all of his
his commentators.
commentators. Thus Thus
Ammonius: toOto
Ammonius :
1'0ng uv 1'6 BedpiiiM
'roi rh
iUv toi Bees/mpg. rb1'6 vvv
vv iv'l'nr 'prrorhous Kwo/uvov, SokcT
'ApiffToriXovs Kivoiixevov, 601cc? uv
/jiv
elven \oyiK6vj
elvai ho'yucv, Kard. dhbemv di
Kara. &\-^6eiav 6E wpbs
1rp6s wdvra Mp: r^$
mivra. fi6pia rs tf>L\offotf>las
Lhoaolas iffrlv arlv dvayKotov
dva'yxaiov'
(card re
jvard yap t^v
15 yhp 191v '^dtKijv Lhoolav iraffav
mint-by ipiXoffoipiav miau ivdyKij rpoahaudvew, us
dvd'yxn Trpotrkafi^dvetv^ of: irdvra
(is: oO mivra. iffri
a'rl
re KoX
re 71mm i^
Kat ylverai E dyiy/njj,
dvd'yxm, 4XX'
(DOC iari Two. Kal
an rivh. Kai i4>' niv. Another
' ^pXv. commentator praises
Another commentator praises
Aristotle for
Aristotle for not
not confining himself to
conning himself to purely consideration in
logical consideration
purely logical in this
this logical
logical
treatise and
treatise and giving scope to
giving scope to the
the largest
largest and and most most important
important considerations
considerations of of
philosophy. Simplicius in
philosophy. Simplicius in his Comment. on
his Comment, the Categories,
on the Categories, 103 103 B,
B, expressly
expressly statesstates
that the
that the Stoics (presumably first)
Stoics (presumably rst) applied
applied the the law
law also futures. In
to futures.
also to In my Disserta-
Disserta-
tion Pseudo-Platonica,
tion Pseudo-Platonica, p. 26, 1I have
p. 26, have collected
collected some some of of the references to
the references to this
this con-
con
troversy. I
troversy. could now add
I could add many others if
many others if it seemed desirable.
it seemed desirable.
See
' Cicero, De
See Cicero, De Nat. Deorum, I,
Nat. Deorum, I, XXV, 69 69 ff., with
., Mayors note,
with Mayor's note, esp.esp. 7o:
70:
Idem
" Idem facit (Epicurus) contra
facit (Epicurus) contra dialecticos
dialecticos; aa quibus
; quibus cum traditum sit
cum traditum sit inin omnibus
omnibus
disjunctionibus in
disjunctionibus in quibus
quibus autaut etiam
'
etiam aut non ponerctur,
aut non ' alterum utrum
poneretur, alterum utrum esseesse verum,
verum,
pertimuit,
pertimuit, ne, ne, si concessum esset
si concessum esset hujus
hujus modimodi aliquid,
aliquid, Aut vivet eras
Aut vivet
'
aut non
cras aut non vivet
vivet
alterutrum fieret
Epicurus, alterutrum
Epicurus,' eret necessarium,
necessarium, etc." etc." ThereThere is is aa slight
slight inaccuracy
inaccuracy here here
Cicero himself
which Cicero
which corrects De Fato.
himself corrects Fate. c. 37. Indirectly
c. 37. Indirectly Epicurus' serves
attitude serves
Epicurus attitude
to conrm the
to confirm if not
age if
the age not the
the genuineness
genuineness of of the tract De Interpretatione.
the tract Interpretatione.
Schmekels Philosophic
3 Schmekel's
3 Philasophz'e derder mittleren
mittleren Stoa, 1892, pp.
Staa, 1892, 155184, has
pp. 155-184, has donedone good
good
service in
service tracing back
in tracing arguments against
later arguments
back later against Fate,Fate, like Ciceros, etc.,
like Cicero's, to the
etc., to the
school of
school of Carneades.
Carneades. There There is, however, still
is, however, still much
much to to do
do inin this direction.
this direction.
De Interpret.,
4 De
* 18 h 31 : Siarc
Interpret., 18^31: dict-re oSre Bovheeaal. Sioi
off-re pov\e6e<r6ai av oUre
oi &v otire vpay/iareifirSai.
wpayuareeaaz.

:
IN THE
43
attention in
attention in the Rhetoric and
the Rhetoric the Ethics.
and the Ethics. The great
"The majority of
great majority of
matters with which decisions and enquiries
matters with which decisions and enquiries have to deal are of such have to deal are of such
nature as
nature as to admit of
to admit of being different; for
being different ;
men consult
for men consult and and institute
institute
investigations regarding what they do, and
investigations regarding what they do, and actions are altogether of actions are altogether of
this class,
this none of
class, none them, practically,
of them, being governed
practically, being governed by necessity." by necessity. "
It
It is upon such
is upon facts as
such facts as these,
these, andand with
with such
such aa comparatively
comparatively naive naive
consciousness of
consciousness of freedom,
freedom, that Aristotle proceeds
that Aristotle proceeds to to develop
develop his his
ethical theory. But
ethical theory. But this
this view
view must
must be shaken the
be shaken the moment
moment that that thethe
nature of
nature of time
time is more critically
is more examined. We
critically examined. We cannot
cannot enter here
enter here
into an
into an elaborate history of
elaborate history of ancient
ancient conceptions
conceptions of of time
time in general,
in general,
but some remarks
but some remarks may may be quite in
be quite in place.
place. Respecting the
Respecting the present
present
there could be
there could be nono serious question until
serious question until the the full development of
full development of
Scepticism, but
Scepticism, regarding the
but regarding the past
past andand the future the
the future case was
the case was
different. Aristotle,
different. Aristotle, of of course, considered the
course, considered the past
past as as aa potentiality
potentiality
realized in
realized in the
the present,
present, andand the future as
the future as existing
existing potentially
potentially in the
in the
present moment.2 But
present moment.' But in in thethe gradual
gradual effacement
effacement which which the the con-con-
ception of
ception of potentiality suffered, this
potentiality suffered, thi answer
answer could could not not longlong be be
accepted as
accepted as satisfactory.
satisfactory.
We have already remarked
have already remarked that that the
the Stoics,
Stoics, in their energetic
in their energetic
effort to
effort sum up
to sum up all the particular
all the objects of
particular objects of experience
experience in one self-
in one self-
consistent system, practically
consisten't system, practically drew drew past and future
past and future into the present
into the present ;
and we
and we have
have an express statement
an express statement of Chrysippus doctrine
of Chrysippus' doctrine concern-
concern-
time. "Past
ing time.
ing Past and and future
future time have a certain reality, but
time have a certain reality, but do do not
not
really exist,
really save as
exist, save accidental qualities are said to exist, as, e.
as accidental qualities are said to exist, as, e. g.,
g.,
walking is
'walking' is a when [am
fact when
a fact walking, but
I am walking, when II sit
but when or lie
sit or lie down,
down, it it
not.3 Epicurus
is not."^
is dened time
Epicurus defined time as as aa quality
quality two removes from
two removes reality,
from reality,
2'. e.,
t. atoms. Critolaus,
the atoms.''
e., the contemporary of
Critolaus, aa contemporary of Carneades,
Carneades, declareddeclared
to be
it to
it be a a mental
mental instrument
instrument of of measurement,
measurement, according it
according no
it no
objective
objective existence.5
existence.^ If
If thus
thus the
the dogmatic
dogmatic schools
schools tended
tended more
more and
and
more to
more to deprive
deprive it of substantial
it of substantial validity,
validity, the the Sceptics
Sceptics of of the third
the third
and second
and second centuries
centuries B. B. C. ended by
C. ended denying it
by denying altogether, or
it altogether, or at
at
least making
least making it it wholly unknowable.
wholly unknowable."
1357
xRhett, 135J a
^Rhet., 23 if.
a23fi.
'
2This would be
This would be clear even from
clear even from general
general considerations of his
considerations of his system
system;; but see
but see
also De Interpret.,
also De 19 ih 2,
Interpret., ig where he
2, where he speaks of futures
speaks of futures as
as tSi' dirt-wit Mum-63v 6e
[ii] Svtwj'
16) jui;
Smaruv Si
slim î) nil

elmi slim. It
I)! ehai. required only
It required only the
the disintegration of the
disintegration of the SvmT6p
Ewarbv to reach the
to reach 6.
the M] C".M
3ln Wachsmuths Stobaeus,
3In Wachsmuth's I, p.
Stahaem, I, 415%., p.
106. 'Ibid,,
p. I06. Sext. Empir.
and Sext.
103, and
p. 103, Empir. X,X, 219.
219.
ihici, p.
5Stohaeus, ibid.,
iStobaeus, 103.
p. 103.
6 Sextus Empiricus
'Sextus Empiricus has
has two lengthy discussions
two lengthy of Time,
discussions of Time, Pyrrhon.,
Pyrrhon., III, 136 ff.;
Ill, 136 ff.;

44
44 THE NECESSARY
THE AND THE
NECESSARY AND CONTINGENT
THE CONTINGENT
Considering the
Considering the important
important part which the
part which the thought
thought of of futurity-
futurity
plays in all ethical theory, it is not strange
plays in all ethical theory, it is not strange that it should have that it should have been
been
most keenly
most criticised and
keenly criticised and the
the results
results of of its supposed annihilation
its supposed annihilation
drawn out
drawn out inin their relation to
their relation conduct. This
to conduct. This is done in
is done two
in two
spurious dialogues,
spurious Demoaocus and
dialogues, Demodocus and Sisyphus,
Sisyphus, whichwhich found found their way
their way
the manuscripts
into the
into manuscripts of of Plato,
Plato, but which II believe
but which believe to to have originated
have originated
the period
in the
in period afterafter Carneades,"
Carneades, and and in orations of
two orations
in two of Dio Chrysos-
Dio Chrysos-
tomus.2 In
tomus. In the
the Sisyphus
Sisyphus and Demoaocus the
and Demodocus argument turns
the argument turns upon
upon
the question
the whether deliberation
question whether deliberation is is possible,
possible, and and aa general
general denialdenial
is practically
is reached by
practically reached showing that
by showing that in giving or
in giving or taking counsel
taking counsel
a knowledge of
a knowledge of the things under
the things discussion would
under discussion would be necessary,
be necessary,
which, however,
which, however, is is rendered impossible by
rendered impossible by thethe conditions
conditions of the
of the
case. Deliberation
case. Deliberation has has to do with
to do with futures,
futures, andand they
they are are non-existent.^
non-existent.3
The conclusion,
The conclusion, therefore,
therefore, is is purely sceptical. The twenty-sixth
The twenty-sixth
very
purely sceptical.
oration of
oration of Dio follows the
Dio follows the argument
argument of of the
the Sisyphus
Sisyphus very closely, closely,
except that
except that the
the parts
parts are are somewhat transposed. But
somewhat transposed. But the sceptical
the sceptical
movement has
movement has spent
spent itself, and Dio
itself, and comes at
Dio comes the last
at the last to the curious
to the curious
conclusion, that,
conclusion, though the
that, though discussion proves
the discussion proves the futility of
the futility of
deliberation because
deliberation because of of our inability to
our inability know the
to know the future,
future, one one must
must
learn and
learn devote himself
and devote himself to study, in
to study, order that
in order that he he maymay give com-
give com-
petent advice and
petent advice and notnot fall fall into error. Such
into error. doubts are
Such doubts are those only
those only
litterateur and
of aa litUrateur
of travelling teacher
and travelling teacher who wishes to
who wishes to recommend
recommend
himself and
himself and the cause of
the cause education. In
of education.* the other
In the other oration,
oration, he says
he says
the philosophers,
of the
of philosophers, among among whom whom he he includes
includes himself,
himself, that they, in
that they, in
contrast to
contrast vain rhetoricians,
to vain rhetoricians, have real foreknowledge
have aa real foreknowledge of events
of events
and have
and have longlong agoago taken
taken counsel
counsel with with themselves regarding them.'
themselves regarding them.5
All these
All these questionings,
questionings, however,however, were were primarily
primarily due due to the Pla-
to the Pla-
tonic-Aristotelian distinctions
tonic-Aristotelian distinctions in arising from
intellection arising
in intellection from the the fixed
xed
juxtaposition
juxtaposition of of the eternal and
the eternal necessary on
and necessary on the one hand,
the one hand, and and the
the
and
and Ada. Math., X,
Adv. Math, X, 176
176 ff. His
ff. His arguments
arguments against
against it doubtless go
it doubtless back to
go back to the
the
earlier Sceptics.
earlier Sceptics. He quotes Timon,
He quotes X, 197,
Timon, X, we must
and we
197, and must conclude from this
conclude from fact
this fact
that the
that the subject
subject began
began to to be thoroughly canvassed
be thoroughly canvassed notnot many
many generation after
generation after
Aristotle.
Aristotle.
' See
See my
my Dissertation, mentioned, pp.
above mentioned,
Dissertation, above ff.
22 E.
pp. 22
XXII and
Orations XXII
=2 Orations XXVI.
and XXVI.
3All
3 of these
All of these works,
works, Sisyphus, Demoaoeus, Dio,
Sisyphus, Demodocus, Dio, and Sextus Empir.
and Sextus Empir. call futures
call futures
pxh (iv-m without
/tij 8cTo qualication.
without qualification.
4This
* conclusion is
This conclusion only playfully
is only in Sisyphus,
suggested in
playfully suggested 390 A.
Sisyphus, 390 A.
5 Orat.
5 XXII, p.
Orat. XXII, 511,
p. SI Reiske.
I, Reiske.

THE ARISTOTELIAN
IN THE
SYSTEM 45
45
contingent and not

contingent and really intelligible
not really on the
intelligible on the other.'
other.1 Let
" Let us us postu-
postu-
late, says Aristotle,2 "that
late," says Aristotle,' that there
there are two parts
are two of the rational
parts of the rational faculty; faculty;
one with
one with which
which we we contemplate
contemplate that soIt of
that soft of real
real existence
existence whose whose
principles
principles do do not admit of
not admit of being different, and one
being different, and one with which we with which we
contemplate what
contemplate may vary.
what may vary. For,For, in relation to
in relation objects which
to objects which are are
generically different,
generically different, wewe must assume equally
must assume equally separate
separate and and distinct
distinct
parts
parts of the soul
of the naturally related
soul naturally related each
each to to its appropriate object,
its appropriate object, ifif
indeed, as
indeed, as wewe believe, knowledge belongs
believe, knowledge belongs to to them
them in in virtue
virtue of of sim-
sim
ilarity and
ilarity kinship. The
and kinship. rst of
The first these we
of these may call
we may the cognitive,
call the cognitive, the the
second the
second inferential ;= for
the inferential;^ deliberating and
for deliberating drawing inferences
and drawing inferences are are
one and
one and the the same, and no
same, and no one deliberates about
one deliberates about matters
matters that that do do not
not
admit of
admit of variation.
variation. Hence Hence the the inferential
inferential is is aa subdivision
subdivision of the
of the
rational faculty.''
rational faculty. Deliberation,
Deliberation, he he then
then proceeds
proceeds to say, is
to say, is aa form
form of of
search or
search or enquiry, and wisdom in counsel not scientic
enquiry, and wisdom in counsel is not scientific knowledge,
is knowledge,
nor yet is
nor yet merely aa matter
it merely
is it matter of good luck.
of good luck. RatherRather it it is to be
is to called
be called
a species
a species of of prudencefor
prudence for prudent men are good counsellors the
prudent men are good counsellorsthe
right perception
right perception of that which
of that which is advantageous for
is advantageous for the
the procurement
procurement
of an end,
of an whereof prudence
end, whereof prudence is is the right apprehension.
the right apprehension.
It is
It that Aristotle's
clear that
is clear Aristotles own own dictum
dictum with regard to
with regard the future
to the future
rendered his
rendered his utterances
utterances on deliberation self-contradictory.
on deliberation selfcontradictory. If one
If one
truthfully say
cannot truthfully
cannot say that this particular
that this result will
particular result follow, but
will follow, must
but must
abide the
abide the actual
actual event
event before
before one'sones statement
statement can can bebe true, then aa
true, then
foreknowledge of
foreknowledge of the
the right means is
right means also impossible.
is also impossible. His difculty
His difficulty
lay in believing
lay in believing that certain judgments
that certain judgments are are absolutely
absolutely true, true, as as con-
con-
taining predicates
taining predicates whichwhich are are fixed
xed and and eternal
eternal in their meaning.
in their meaning.
Could he
Could he have seen that
have seen that the
the principles
principles of of mathematics
mathematics and and astron-
astron-
omy, in
omy, which he
in which reposed so
he reposed so much
much confidence,
condence, would would themselves
themselves suf- suf
fer continual reconstruction
fer aa continual reconstruction as as knowledge
knowledge advanced, advanced, he might
he might
have perceived
have perceived that that all individual judgments
all individual judgments are are incomplete
incomplete and and
provisional.
provisional. As such there
As such can be
there can be nono radical
radical distinctions
distinctions betweenbetween
scientic and
scientific and practical
practical judgments:
judgments both both still
: still proceed
proceed from from aa sub-sub
ject which is
ject which is not
not fully dened. But
fully defined. But thethe recognition
recognition of of previously
previously
Plato
Plato said matter was
that matter
said that was at
at the very best
the very best away hoywa rivl
aTtTov Xtr/iaiiQ 11694;, p.671:
rwl vb8if, 1rto
/1x671s irur-
1-6, Tim.,
tI)v, 52 B;
Tim., 52 ; Aristotle, Met,
and Aristotle,
B and 1036 aa 8,
Met., 1036 says : i] Si
8, says : iihn iyvasToi
6% v\i]
ti d'vaa'ros KaB' al'rr-hu.
Ka avT-^v,
In both
In systems matter
both systems matter is
is the
the contingent
contingent oror its
its source, is the
and is
Source, and the fi^ or
(itpla'lloll or
1.1.?) iipiaiiimv
the &Trapov.
the dretpov.
=Eth.1Vz'c.,
'Eth. 1 390 off.
Nic, 11139a 6f.
380
3 So I render, for
I render, for convenience, 7rL0'T1701l-K61 and
convenience, iruj-Tritwi'iKSv homo-Tutti. Aristotle
and \oyiiTTi,K6v. Aristotle else-
else-
where defines
where ovheea-at as
denes ôv\eic<r0ai as avWoyurii6s
avhhoywu: tis.
'rts.

46
46 THE NECESSARY
THE THE CONTINGENT
undened qualities
undefined qualities in
in the subject which
the subject which vitiate or rather
vitiate demand the
or rather demand the
re-formation the predicate,
of the
re-formation of predicate, ordinarily impresses us
ordinarily impresses us less in
less in science
science
in practice.
than in
than practice. Perhaps the
Perhaps reason
the reason lies in
lies in the less subjective
the less subjective
character of
character theory. Scientists
of theory. are more
Scientists are devoted to
more devoted truth than
to truth than to to aa
particular theory. Hence
particular theory. Hence there
there areare notnot such heart-burnings over
such heart-burnings over
negative instances,
negative refusing to
instances, refusing to be explained by
be explained by our hypotheses, as
our hypotheses, as we
we
experience when,
experience through lack
when, through lack ofof foresight,
foresight, "ein ein Strich durch die
Strich durch die
Rechnung" frustrates our
Rechnung frustrates our most cherished plans.
most cherished plans. Yet the
Yet the casecase is
is
really the
really same: only,
the same : only, because
because we we areare so eager to
so eager to act,
act, our deni-
our defini-
tions of
tions of the means in
the means in practice
practice areare perhaps
perhaps relatively more incom-
relatively more incom-
plete.
plete. Now
Now and and then,
then, however,
however, the the disclosure
disclosure of of the inadequacy of
the inadequacy of
a theory will
a theory shock the
will shock world quite
the world quite as as much
much as as the
the conviction
conviction that that
one has
one has been reckoning without
been reckoning without hishis host.
host. The The discoveries
discoveries of of Kep-
Kep-
and Galileo,
ler and
ler Galileo, all things considered,
all things doubtless produced
considered, doubtless produced a a greater
greater
effect in
effect France than
in France than the
the failure of the
failure of late war
the late war with Germany.
with Germany.
Thus we
Thus we are
are at length brought
at length brought back, long wanderings,
after long
back, after wanderings, to to
our point
our point of of departure.
departure. Theory Theory is only aa phase
is only phase of of action,
action, and and thethe
keynote of
keynote of action
action is is progress toward organization
progress toward organization and and unity.
unity. To
To
set xed limits
up fixed
set up limits to this process
to this process is is to falsify fact,
to falsify and the
fact, and the doing
doing so so
can lead
can only to
lead only to self-contradiction.
self-contradiction. It It is in fact
is in only aa transference
fact only transference
the functional
of the
of functional boundaries,
boundaries, set set up
up by the individual
by the individual act,act, to reality
to reality
at large:
at large : what
what is
is true
true of
of the
the part
part is
is not equally true of
not equally true of the
the whole.
whole.
Thus the
Thus the contingent
contingent and and the necessary, which
the necessary, which possess
possess a true mean-
a true mean-
only within
ing only
ing within aa limited dened by
scope defined
limited scope by aa particular
particular end, end, areare
generalized and
generalized and erected
erected into absolute fact.
into absolute fact. But, really, absolute
But, really, absolute
necessity is
necessity as unmeaning
is as unmeaning as as absolute
absolute contingency.
contingency. For For both concep-
both concep-
tions we
tions we shall
shall do do well
well to substitute that
to substitute that of of less
less oror greater
greater com- com-
pleteness
pleteness in denition of
the definition
in the of fact.
fact.

HEIDEL - The Necessary and The Contingent

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THE NECESSARY AND

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THE NECESSARY ANDTHE

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" Vide Plato, Theaetetus,

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common unit could

ch. 4: Bdavarov 4\Xus

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this particular phase

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fortunate that the

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more specically the

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not, their thought,

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