Professional Documents
Culture Documents
and Systems
Dr K.J. Vinoy
Associate Professor
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Brief Outline
Overview/Scope
Challenges to be addressed
Course schedule
Important issues
Importance of Home/Lab works
Software tools
Final Project
Final Exam
Grading Policy
Text books
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1
Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits and Systems
Overview
There is a demand for a course on the present technology for Telecommunications.
Course on Microwave Systems Engineering was introduced in 2005.
Topics covered included
microwave engineering fundamentals
basic concepts of passive and active circuits
antennas
numerical electromagnetic techniques.
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2
Why study Electromagnetics
Opportunity to study things that vary in space AND time
We learn a lot of phenomenon with ordinary differential equations.
Maxwell's equations are fascinating because they account for variation in space as well as
time.
The study of electromagnetics is vibrant enough to keep you going for a lifetime.
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Technology Impact
Raw Materials
3
Relevant Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio Frequency Spectrum
HF 3-30 MHz 100m-10m |
VHF 30-300 MHz 10m - 1m |
UHF 300-1000 MHz 1m-30cm | Presently called RF
|
L-Band 1-2 GHz 30cm-15cm | |
S-Band 2-4 GHz 15cm-7.5cm
C-Band 4-8 GHz 7.5cm-4.5cm
|
|
X Band 8-12 GHz 4.5cm-2.5cm | Microwave bands
Ku-Band 12-18 GHz 2.5cm-1.67cm |
K-Band 18-26.5 GHz 1.67cm-1.13cm |
Ka-band 26.5-40 GHz 1.13cm-7.5mm | |
Q band 30 - 50 GHz 1 cm 6mm
|
U band 40 - 60 GHz 7.5mm 5mm
| (30-300 GHz)
V band 50 - 75 GHz 6 mm 4mm
E band 60 - 90 GHz 5 mm 3.33 mm | Millimeter bands
W band 75 - 110 GHz 4 mm 2.7 mm |
F band 90 - 140 GHz 3.33mm 2.14 mm |
D band 110 - 170 GHz 2.7mm 1.76 mm |
|
Sub-millimeter: >300GHz < 1mm 1 MHz = 106 Hz
wave bands
1 GHz = 109 Hz = 1000 MHz
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?? 10s GHz
WiFi/WLAN
Radios ~MHz
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4
Perspective: What is Microwave Engineering?
Microwave engineering is a study of wave-material interactions at microwave
frequencies
Size of component is of the order of a wavelength
At microwave frequencies
Many materials (or, material systems) behave differently
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Emerging Areas
Device Technology
Materials technologies
Design Approaches
Computational techniques
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5
New Opportunities / Challenges
Wireless communications systems require antennas.
Small, multifunctional antennas
Optical communications
Sub-millimeterwave systems
http://www.who.int/peh-emf/about/WhatisEMF/en/
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possible all from
ideas external sources are acknowledged. Pl. report any errors.
www.eas.asu.edu/~holbert/wise/EE-program-2001.ppt
Local Challenges
Inadequate preparation at UG level
General skepticism
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6
Course Objectives
Understand why RF Design is different
Revise EM fundamentals
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Course Schedule
Week Topic Points
Introduction to wireless systems, personal communication systems, High frequency effects in
11-Jan circuits and systems.
Practice Exercise 1: Use Maxwell Equations to derive the wave impedance of free space. 1
Practice Exercise 2: Use Smith Chart to design Single stub tuning circuit 2
7
Course Schedule-2
8-Feb
Practice Exercise 7: Use ADS/AWR to analyze a filter with periodic structure; obtain its k-beta
diagram using Matlab/script programs OR Transmissionline component using CRLH concepts 2
Test 2 15
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Course Schedule-3
Practice Exercise 8: Expt with RF Lab Kit 1
Basics of high frequency amplifier design, device technologiesbiasing techniques,
15-Mar simultaneous tuning of 2 port circuits
22-Mar CMOS circuit design for RF applications; Feedback systems, phase locked loops
LNA design, designs based on impedance match noise performance, linearity, noise
and large signal performance; noise and distortion,
5-Apr Design of typical Wire and Planar antennas for Wireless systems
8
Why is this course 2:1
Microwave engineering is about designing circuits that work!
Many conventional theories fail at high frequencies
All are expected to be able to design, fabricate and test some circuit component by the end of
this course
By the end of the course you will be asked to take an example from published recent literature
and
Redesign with materials available in the Lab.
As a training towards this several home/lab work experiments are planned during the semester
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Grading Policy
Home/Lab work
All practice Exercises should be submitted as soft copies.
Scope, objectives, screen grab of project schematics, simulation results and conclusions are required in all
reports
Last date for valid submission is the Wednesday after it is announced
Penalty for late submission: 1st day 25%; 2nd day 60%; 3rd day 90%; no credits if submitted later than
Saturday; Negative marks (2x) if not submitted or proved to be copied.
Exercises have a total credit of 20 points
Tests
2 tests have a total of 30 points
Final Project
The final project is based on a recent paper relevant to the course and/or research
Fabrication and test is compulsory for this. Active circuits are not usually preferred due to unavailability of
components.
The report should briefly explain the original work, and highlight modifications/extensions attempted during
the present work
Total of 20 points Marks Grade
Novelty/technical content etc: 5
91-100 S
Presentation & report 15
81-90 A
Final Exam
66-80 B
Has 30 points
51-65 C
Relative grading is not feasible in a small class 40-50 D
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9
Course Material
Text books
DM Pozar Microwave and RF Wireless Systems
TH Lee The design of CMOS Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits* * Indian reprint editions are
available to many of these
D.M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, John Wiley*
books.
VK Varadan, K.J. Vinoy, K.A. Jose, RF MEMS and Their Applications
Websites
To be updated
Volunteer needed
There is a request to bring out a set of lecture notes for several courses at IISc during the centenary
year.
I request participation from 1 or 2 of you in this regard.
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10
Introduction to Wireless Systems
GPS
GSM/CDMA
Bluetooth
WiFi
WLAN
RFID
DBS
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Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB
and FireWire.
A wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with
network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, or UWB.
Note: Most information in this and the following ~10 slides are from Wikipedia
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11
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is an industrial specification for wireless personal area
networks (PANs).
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Zigbee
ZigBee is the name of a specification for a suite of high level communication
protocols using small, low-power digital radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4
standard for wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as wireless headphones
connecting with cell phones via short-range radio.
The technology is intended to be simpler and cheaper than other WPANs, such as
Bluetooth.
ZigBee operates in ISM radio bands: 868 MHz in Europe, 915 MHz in countries
such as USA and Australia, and 2.4 GHz in most jurisdictions worldwide.
Targets RF applications requiring a low data rate, long battery life, and secure
networking.
The resulting network will use very small amounts of power so individual devices
might run for a year or two using the originally installed battery.
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12
Competition: EnOcean
EnOcean GmbH is a spin-off company of Siemens AG founded in 2001,
The technology is based on the efficient exploitation of slightest changes in the environmental
energy using the principles of energy harvesting. In order to transform such energy fluctuations
into usable electrical energy, electromagnetic, piezogenerators, solar cells, thermocouples, and
other energy converters are used.
The signals of these sensors and switches can be transmitted across a distance up to 300 m.
Three packets are sent at pseudo-random intervals reducing the possibility of packet collisions to
a very low figure.
Every device has a unique 32-bit serial number, so local interference is avoided by 'training in'
receivers to the transmitters required to operate them.
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WiFi
A wireless technology brand-owned by the Wi-Fi Alliance intended to improve the
interoperability of wireless local area network products based on the IEEE 802.11
standards.
Applications
Internet and VoIP phone access,
gaming
Wi-Fi allows LANs to be deployed without cabling for client devices, typically
reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Useful in spaces where
cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings.
A typical Wi-Fi home router using 802.11b or 802.11g with a stock antenna might
have a range of 32 m (120 ft) indoors and 95 m (300 ft) outdoors.
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13
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Links two or more computers without using wires.
Advantages
This gives users the mobility to move around within a broad coverage area and
still be connected to the network.
The wireless nature allows users to access network resources from nearly any
convenient location within their primary networking environment (home or
office).
With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the internet
even outside their normal work environment.
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Range:
The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard equipment is ~10s m.
To obtain additional range, repeaters or additional access points required.
Reliability:
Subject to a wide variety of interference, as well as complex propagation effects (such as multipath, or
especially in this case Rician fading).
Usually, modulation is achieved by phase-shift keying (PSK) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM),
causing interference and other propagation effects.
Important network resources such as servers are rarely connected wirelessly.
Speed:
The speed on most wireless networks (~ 1-108 Mbit/s) is slow compared to the slowest common wired
networks (100 Mbit/s - several Gbit/s).
Additionally, there are performance issues caused by TCP and its built-in congestion avoidance.
Newer standards such as 802.11n are addressing this limitation and will support peak throughputs in the
range of 100-200 Mbit/s.
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14
WiMAX
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
15
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Application
Maps on the go
Key facts
Global Positioning System (GPS) a fully
functional Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS).
GPS
Frequencies used by GPS include
L1 (1575.42 MHz):
Mix of Navigation Message, coarse-acquisition (C/A) code and encrypted precision P(Y) code, plus the new
L1C on future Block III satellites.
L2 (1227.60 MHz):
P(Y) code, plus the new L2C code on the Block IIR-M and newer satellites.
L3 (1381.05 MHz):
Used by the Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System Payload (NDS) to signal detection of nuclear
detonations and other high-energy infrared events. Used to enforce nuclear test ban treaties.
L4 (1379.913 MHz):
Being studied for additional ionospheric correction.
L5 (1176.45 MHz):
Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal (planned for 2008)
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16
Direct broadcast satellite (DBS)
DBS refers to satellite television broadcasts intended for home reception, also
referred to as direct-to-home signals.
DTH refers to services carried by lower power satellites which required larger
dishes (1.7m diameter or greater) for reception.
DBS typically requires smaller (0.9m dishes). Uses higher powered satellites
The term DBS now covers both analog and digital television and radio reception, and
is often extended to other services provided by modern digital television systems,
including video-on-demand and interactive features.
Modern satellite providers in the United States use high power Ku-band
transmissions using circular polarization, which result in small dishes, and digital
compression (hence bringing in an alternative term, Digital Satellite System)
DD Direct Plus is a free Direct to Home (DTH) service that provides satellite
television and audio programming, owned by Doordarshan.
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LMDS commonly operates on microwave frequencies across the 26GHz and 29GHz
bands. In the United States, frequencies from 31.0 through 31.3 GHz are also
considered LMDS frequencies.
Throughput capacity and reliable distance of the link depends on common radio link
constraints and the modulation method used - either phase-shift keying or
amplitude modulation. In general deployment links of up to 5 miles (8 km) from the
base station are possible, but distance is typically limited to about 1.5 miles due to
rain fading attenuation constraints.
Point-to-point systems are also capable of using the LMDS frequencies and can
reach slightly farther distances due to increased antenna gain.
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17
RF ID
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices
called RFID tags or transponders.
An RFID tag is an object that can be applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification using
radio waves.
Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader.
RFID use is in
enterprise supply chain management,
improving the efficiency of inventory tracking and management.
Types
Passive tags require no internal power source, thus being pure passive devices (they are only active when a reader is nearby to power them). To
communicate, tags respond to queries generating signals that must not create interference with the readers, as arriving signals can be very weak
and must be told apart. Backscattering (far field) or load modulation (near field) techniques can be used to manipulate the reader's field.
Active RFID tags have their own internal power source, which is used to power IC and broadcast the signal to the reader. Active tags are
typically much more reliable than passive tags due to their ability to conduct a "session" with a reader. Active tags transmit at higher power
levels than passive tags, allowing them to be more effective in "RF challenged" environments like water, metal or at longer distances, generating
strong responses from weak requests. They are generally bigger and more expensive to manufacture, and their potential shelf life is much
shorter. Many active tags have practical ranges of hundreds of meters, and a battery life of up to 10 years.
Semi-passive tags are similar to active tags in that they have their own power source, but the battery only powers the microchip and does not
broadcast a signal. The RF energy is reflected back to the reader like a passive tag. An alternative use for the battery is to store energy from
the reader to emit a response in the future, usually by means of backscattering. The battery-assisted receive circuitry of semi-passive tags
lead to greater sensitivity than passive tags, typically 100 times more. Semi-passive tags have three main advantages 1) Greater sensitivity than
passive tags 2) Better battery life than active tags. 3) Can perform active functions (such as temperature logging) under its own power, even
when no reader is present
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18
Selection of frequencies:
Atmospheric attenuation
http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/frequency.cfm
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http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/frequency.cfm
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19
Overview
What is electromagnetics
A bit of history
Early Indian contributions
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In the beginning
Electromagnetics started with the experimental observations of
www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~em/em05pdf/1%20Transmission%20Line.pdf
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20
What is Electromagnetics
An electromagnetic (EM) field is generated when charged particles, such
as electrons, are accelerated.
http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid44_gci212055,00.html
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Electromagnetic Radiations
Electromagnetic radiation is a stream of photons (massless particles traveling in a
wave-like pattern) moving at the speed of light.
The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic radiation is the
amount of energy found in the photons.
Radio waves have photons with low energies, and gamma-rays are the most energetic.
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http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html
21
Representation of EM Radiations
The electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of energy,
wavelength, or frequency.
Frequency is measured in cycles per second (which is called a Hertz),
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Bit of History
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Boston. In the 1740's electricity was a fashionable
subject, Franklin began to investigate electrical phenomena. Franklin invented
many terms still used in discussing electricity (positive, negative, battery,
conductor, etc.)
This triboelectric machine is based on a rotating glass sphere rubbing against a
silk cloth. Charge is the transferred to a metallic sphere on the other side.
Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) Italian physician who, in the 1770's, began to investigate the
nature and effects of electricity in animal tissue and of muscular stimulation by electrical
means. In 1786, he obtained muscular contractions in a frog by touching its nerves with a
pair of scissors during an electrical storm.
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (1745-1827) a professor at the University of
Pisa. Volta began experimenting in 1794 with metals and found that currnet can be produced
using. His invention and demonstration of the electric battery in 1800 provided the first
continuous electric power source
22
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) A letter on the principles of mechanics written to d'Alembert gained him
a professorship at the cole Militaire. His discovery that the attractive force of a mass upon a particle
could be obtained directly by differentiating a single potential function laid the mathematical foundation
for the analysis of heat, magnetism, and electricity.
Simon-Denis Poisson (1781-1849) In Paris at the cole Polytechnique, Laplace and Lagrange were his
instructors, and lifelong friends. Poisson's work concerned the application of mathematics to electricity
and magnetism, and other areas of physics.
Hans Christian rsted (1777-1851), a professor at the University of Copenhagen. In 1820 he was
performing a classroom demonstration of the heating effect of electric currents when he observed the
deflection of a nearby compass. He discovered a connection between electricity and magnetism.
Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854) German physicist. Discovered the law that the
current flow through a conductor is proportional to the voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance.
Current flowing through the metal bar in the center cylinder deflects a magnetized
needle suspended above it. The deflection angle is proportional to the current. The
source of electric potential is a thermocouple. The ends of the thermocouple are
heated by steam and cooled by ice-water in the small containers on the tripods.
George Green (1793-1841) In 1828 he privately published "An Essay on the Application of Mathematical
Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" in which he extended the work of Poisson to obtain
a general method of solution for the potential.
Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774-1862) along with Flix Savart formulated the Biot-Savart law of
magnetic fields. In 1804 he took part in the first balloon ascension for scientific research
and showed that the terrestrial magnetic field does not vary appreciably with altitude.
23
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) overturned the theories and methods of 18th-century
mathematics. Beginning in 1830, Gauss worked closely with Weber. They organized a
worldwide system of stations for systematic observations of terrestrial magnetism. The
most important result of their work in electromagnetism was the development, by others, of
telegraphy.
Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891), a German physicist, who with his friend Gauss
investigated terrestrial magnetism, also established a system of absolute electrical units.
His work on the ratio between the electrodynamic and electrostatic units was crucial to
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light.
Heinrich F.E. Lenz (1804-1865), Estonia (then in Russia). He was a professor at the
University of St. Petersburg who carried out many experiments following the initiatives of
Faraday. He is memorialized by the law which bears his name - the electrodynamic action of
an induced current equally opposes the machanical inducing action- which was later
recognized to be an expression of the conservation of energy.
Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872), He conceived the electric telegraph and made the first
working model in 1835.
Ernst Werner von Siemens (1816-1892) Prussia. He began chemistry experiments that led to
his invention of the first electroplating system. In 1837 he invented improvements in the
development of early telegraphic systems.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907), at the University of Glasgow. Thomson is most
famous for his work in thermodynamics, but his theoretical analysis of cable transmission
and his inventions (1854-1858) made the transatlantic cable possible.
24
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889), studied at Manchester under Dalton. At age twenty-one
he published the "I2R" law. Two years later, he published the first determination of the
mechanical equivalent of heat. He became a collaborator with Thomson and they discovered
that the temperature of an expanding gas falls. The "Joule-Thomson effect" was the basis
for the large refrigeration plants constructed in the 19th century.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887), German, At the age of 21, he presented laws which
allow calculation of the currents, voltages, and resistances of electrical networks. In further
studies he demonstrated that current flows through a conductor at the speed of light. His
other work established the technique of spectrum analysis which he applied to determine
the composition of the Sun.
George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903) British physicist and mathematician famous for a basic
theorem of vector analysis. Stokes was the first to suggest the reason for the Fraunhofer
lines.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) Edinburgh. He is ranked with Newton and Einstein for the
fundamental nature of his many contributions to physics. Most importantly, he originated
the concept of electromagnetic radiation and his field equations (1873) led to Einstein's
special theory of relativity.
John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) (1842-1919), He is most famous for his discovery of
Argon and his work in acoustics. He worked on the precision determination of electrical
standards and his work on the scattering of light explained the blue color of the sky.
John Henry Poynting (1852-1914), one of Maxwell's students, He published papers which
showed that energy flow can be expressed in a simple formula using the electric and
magnetic fields.
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) came to the U.S. from Austria-Hungary. Tesla held more than 700
patents. His inventions included the principle of the rotating magnetic field machine, the
induction motor, polyphase alternating-current systems, the Tesla coil transformer, wireless
communication, radio, and fluorescent lights.
George Westinghouse (1846-1914) was the inventor and industrialist who fought for the
adoption of ac electric power in the U. S. Westinghouse purchased transformers and an ac
generator in Europe and set up an ac power system in Pittsburgh. He bought Tesla's ac
motor patents and hired Tesla to adapt the motor for use in his power system.
Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865-1923) His work at GE on hysteresis loss, ac circuit theory,
and high power discharges provided the basis for the progress in ac circuits at the turn of
the century.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1847-1894) was the first to broadcast and receive radio waves. He
produced electromagnetic waves in the laboratory and measured their wavelength and
velocity. He showed that the nature of their reflection and refraction was the same as those
of light, confirming that light waves are electromagnetic radiation obeying the Maxwell
equations.
These history pages and photos are from http://www.ece.umd.edu/~taylor/frame1.htm
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25
Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) Italian physicist who obtained a patent for a successful
system of radio telegraphy (1896) and remained a leader in radio technology for four
decades. In 1909 he received the Nobel Prize for Physics. Marconi succeeded in receiving
signals transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean despite the curvature of the Earth. This was
the start of the vast development of radio communication and broadcasting.
Albert Abraham Michelson (1852-1931) German-born U.S. physicist who established the
speed of light as a fundamental constant. He received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physics.
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853-1928), University of Leiden, sought to explain the origin of
light by the oscillations of charged particles inside atoms. Under this assumption, a strong
magnetic field would affect the wavelength. Lorentz arrived at the formulas known as the
Lorentz transformations to describe the relation of mass, length and time for a moving body.
These equations form the basis for Einstein's special theory of relativity.
These history pages and photos are from http://www.ece.umd.edu/~taylor/frame1.htm
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http://www.webindia123.com/personal/scientist/bose.htm
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26
Electrostatic Fields
Produced by static charge distribution
Other examples
Vacuum tubes
ECG, EEG, ..
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Electrostatic Fields
Produced by static charge distribution
Other examples
Vacuum tubes
ECG, EEG, ..
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27
Coulombs Law
Based experimental studies
Deals with the force a point charge exerts on another point charge
Coulombs law states that the force between two point charges Q1 and Q2
is
Coulombs Law
Mathematical representation of Coulombs Law
Q1Q2
F =k Q1 Q2
where r2
1
k= Q1 Q2
4 0
As the radius increases, the force is spread over the surface of the sphere
To include directions:
Q1Q2
F12 = aR
4 0 R 2 12
When more than one charge is present, we use Q0
the principle of superposition to find the net force
Q1
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28
Electric Field Intensity
aka Electric field Strength, E
This is the force per unit charge when placed in the electric field
F
E =
Q
Direction of E is along F
Units Newtons/Coulomb or Volts/meter
When multiple point charges are present, the net electric field is the vector sum of individual
contributions
Q0
1 Q1 (r0 r1 ) 1 Q2 (r0 r2 ) 1 Q3 (r0 r3 )
E0 = + +
Q1
4 0 r0 r1 3 4 0 r0 r2 3 4 0 r0 r3 3
Q2
Q3
In many practical problems, charges may be considered distributed continuously along a line,
surface, or volume. The total charge is obtained by integration.
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Distributed charge--Line
Line charge distribution
Recall earlier discussion was about point charges
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Review of Coordinate Systems
The convention used to define a location in some space.
Defined by an origin and a number of unit vectors.
These unit vectors are usually orthogonal and span the entire space.
Coordinates:
P1: (2.6,6.6)
P2: (-5.6,2.3)
P1 P1
P3: (-3.6,-3.6)
P4: (4,-7)
P2 P2
P3 Coordinates: P3
P1: (7,67.5)
P4 P2: (6,157.5) P4
P3: (5,225)
P4: (8,300)
Usual notation: (x, y) Usual notation: (,)
Space: (-<x< , -<y< ) Space: (0 < , 0 <360)
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30
Coordinate Transformations
Polar :
Polar to Rectangular Rectangular:
P1: (2.7,6.5) P1: (7,67.5)
x = cos; y = sin P2: (-5.5,2.3) P2: (6,157.5)
P3: (-3.5,-3.5) P3: (5,225)
P4: (4,-6.9)
Rectangular to Polar P4: (8,300)
Polar : Rectangular:
= sqrt(x2+y2); = tan-1(y/x)
P1: (7.1,68.4) P1: (2.6,6.6)
Signs of x and y may be considered to P2: (6,157.7) P2: (-5.6,2.3)
P3: (-3.6,-3.6)
extend to all quadrants P3: (5.1,225) P4: (4,-7)
P4: (8,300)
Without much effort now we can extend these to Cartesian and Cylindrical
coordinate systems for 3D space
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If you assume for a moment that the line charge is distributed along the entire
z axis, the force on a charge or electric field (E) at P would be radial.
x
How do we resolve this (force/field) in terms of rectangular system?
So, to understand the components of the E field at P due to such a charge
distribution, we should know how unit vectors along coordinate directions get
transformed
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31
Transformation of Vectors
Since the z-axis has the same
meaning, the unit vector along z is the
same for both systems a
y a
a = ax cos+ ay sin
a = (-)ax sin+ ay cos
Or, conversely,
Ax cos sin 0 A
A = sin cos 0 A
y
Az 0 0 1 A z
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Note that, for a point charge at the origin, the force acting on another such
charge on the surface of a sphere (anywhere) is radial
z x2 + y2 y
r = x2 + y2 + z2 = tan 1 = tan 1
z x
x = r sin cos y = r sin sin x = r cos
ar
a Ax sin cos cos cos sin Ar
A = sin sin
a y cos sin cos A
Az cos sin 0 A
Ar sin cos sin sin cos Ax
y A = cos cos cos sin sin Ay
A sin cos 0 Az
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Constant Coordinate Surfaces
Cartesian Cylindrical
x=constant =constant
Y=constant =constant
z=constant z=constant
z
x
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d l = dx ax + dy ay + dz az d l = d a + d a + dz az
Differential normal area Differential normal area
dS = dydz ax dS = d dz a
dxdz ay d dz a
dxdy az d d az
Differential volume Differential volume
dv = dxdydz dv = dddz
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33
Distributed charge--Line
Line charge distribution
Recall earlier discussion was about point charges
Electric Potential
We have already used the Coulombs law to determine the force on a charge and hence the
Electric field intensity
This can also be used to determine the Work done in displacing a charge from point A to B
B
W = Q E d l
A
Potential difference between points A and B is Due to a point
W B charge located at
Solving VAB = = E dl the origin
B Q A
Q
Q E= aR
VAB = a r dra r 4 0 r 2
A
4 0 r 2
Q 1 1
=
4 0 rB rA
= VB VA VA and VB are potentials at A and B
34
Electric Flux Density
For practical reasons, the electric field intensity depends on the medium.
One line of electric flux emanate from +1C and terminate at -1C
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Gauss Law
Total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface
= Qenc
LHS : = d = D dS
RHS : Qenc = v dv
D dS = v dv Maxwell Equation
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35
Magnetostatics
Magnetic field is produced by a current, which is a flow of charges.
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B = H
= B dS
Magnetic flux S
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36
Maxwell Equations
For static fields For time varying fields
L H.dl = S J.dS D
L H.dl = S J + t .dS Amperes Law (modified)
Amperes law to incorporate displacement currents (e.g., during the charging of a capacitor)
Focus on the physical principles rather than the mathematical expressions per se.
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The net electric flux out of closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed
within the volume
Magnetic analogy
The net magnetic flux out of closed surface is zero, as there are no isolated
magnetic monopoles.
Faradays Law
Amperes Law
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/maxeq.html#c1
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37
Constitutive Relations in EM
Constitutive relations for a generalized medium are given by
D = E = 0 E + P = 0 E + 0 e E = 0 (1 + e ) E
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