Davorin Matanovi

Drilling _ Rock Mechanics

 Rock Mechanics
STRESS ANALYSIS
When dealing with solid bodies the term stresses is
used instead of internal forces
 Rock Mechanics
STRESS is the property that needs three values to fully describe it in
the two-dimensional case: the magnitude of the force, the direction of
the force and the area it acts on.
It is known as a tensor property (scalars one value; vectors two
values).
Stress analysis is only possible if we work in components, like:
 Associated stresses can be defined only
after the force is resolved into three
Cartesian components
 It is necessary
to remember
the convention
of geo-
mechanics or
compression-
positive
definition for
right-handed
axes.
 The moment equilibrium of the
cube around the three axes is
defined with:

xy = yx
yz = zy
zx = xz
and the state of stress at a
point (as is reduced to zero) is
defined by six independent
qualities;

x , y , z , xy , yz , zx x yx zx

xy y zy
The stresses are usually written
in matrix form: stress tensor
xz yz z

 Stress is a tensor with six independent
components.
a) shows the situation when force (F) is
resolved through an angle () to resulting
components, and
b) shows the stress components
 In situ stress
a) Principal stresses acting on a small cube
b) Principal stresses expressed in matrix form
c) Principal stress orientations shown on a
hemispherical projection
 In situ stress
In situ conditions: Before the
- porosity, well is
- permeability, drilled
-formation pore
pressure,
-in situ earth
stress,
- effective
overburden stress,
- rock strength.
 CEMENTING
SAND GRAIN
MATERIAL

Characteristics of
reservoir rocks
Porosity is the percent
of void space in reservoir
rock that provides the CONNATE
WATER
OIL

container for the

accumulation of oil and
gas and gives the rock
Vp
=
characteristic ability to
absorb and hold fluids.
- porosity
Vp total volume of pore
space, m3
V rock volume, m3 V
 Characteristics of
reservoir rocks
The rocks of
sedimentary basins
always exhibit some
porosity.
As porosity increases,
the percent of fluid
volume increases while
the rock matrix volume
decreases.
Increasing porosity
weakens the rock
 Permeability
Permeability is a measure
of the ease with which fluid
can move through the inter-
connected pore spaces of
13
the rock.
Many rocks, such as clays, shale,
1D = 9,87 10 m 2

chalk, anhydrite, and some highly

cemented sandstones, are
impervious for movement of water,
oil and gas, even though they may
actually be quite porous.
It acts to weaken the rocks as the
loss of water base mud filtrate
dissolves the grain-to-grain cement
bond.
Also, hydrostatic overbalance forces
water filtrate to penetrate the pores
of the rock; which also weakens the
rock.
 Permeability Permeability
changes relative
to depth for shale
and sandstones.
Shales my have
high porosity, but
have very little
permeability.
 Henry Darcy (1856.)
q L
k=
developed a relation which
describes flow through
porous rock.
Law states that rate flow
A p
through a given rock varies
directly with (1) permeability,
and (2) the pressure applied;
and varies inversely with the k permeability, m2
viscosity of the fluid flowing. q production rate, m3s-1
PORE SPACE SAND GRAINS
- viscosity, Pas
L length of flow path, m
A flow path area, m2
p pressure difference, Pa
 Linear flow of
incompressible
q production rate, m3s-1
Ludolfs number (3,14)
fluid through a
h layer thickness, m rock filled with only
pe pressure at drainage radius, Pa
pw pressure at the borehole radius, Pa
one fluid
re drainage radius, m
rw borehole radius, Pa
fluid viscosity, Pas

2 k h ( pe p w )
q=
re
ln r
w
 Wettability
Also one of parameters that must be
realized and considered.
Most reservoir rocks were formed or laid
down in water, with oil moving in later from
adjacent zones to replace a portion of water.
For this reason, most reservoir rocks are
considered to be water wet.
The grains of the rock matrix are coated with
a film of water, permitting hydrocarbons to fill
the center of the pore spaces.
Productivity of water is maximized with this
condition.
 Actual wettability of a particular reservoir rock is
difficult to determine because the process of
cutting cores and preparing them for lab test can
alter them.
From the standpoint of well completions, stimulation,
and workover operations, it is important to realize that
wettability characteristics of the rock near the well
bore can be unfavorably altered by fluids placed in
contact with rock.
It is very important to tailor the characteristics of
these completion fluids, such that a strongly water
wet condition is maintained to maximize relative
permeability to oil in an oil-water system:
and also to prevent formation of water-in-oil emulsion in the
pore system near the well bore.
 Most reservoir rocks were
formed or laid down in
water, so there is always
some part of water in the
Wettability pore space;
Connate water saturation is
related to permeability. Pore
channels in lower
permeability rocks are
generally smaller. Therefore
Oil the film between the water
and oil will have the same
curvature, and the amount of
water occurring in the crevice
will be about the same.
More oil is contained in the
Large pore Small pore
50 % water
large pore space, and the
20 % water
percent of water in the small
Water
pore will be greater.
 The water
Wettability saturation in a
water wet pore
system varies from
100% below the oil
5
zone to lower
4 Oil percentages at
points higher in the
3 oil zone.
2 Water The zone from a
point 100% water
1 (free water level)
upward to same
0
0 25 50 75 100 point above which
Water saturation, % pore space water saturation is
fairly constant is
called the
transition zone.
 Formation pore pressure
That is the pressure of naturally occurring
fluid(s) in the pores of the rock.
If the fluid connection exists from the
surface to the depth of interest; pore
pressure is then equal to the hydrostatic
pressure of formation water (normal
pressure).
Normal formation pressure is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure of formation water at a
vertical depth of interest.
Formation pore p = gH
pressure
Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic
pressure of formation water at a vertical depth of interest.
 Formation pore pressure
If the fluid cannot escape the pore, pore
pressure begins to increase at a faster-
than-normal rate (abnormal pressure).
Abnormal formation pressure is greater than
normal for the vertical depth of interest.

p = gH
 Formation pore pressure
Pore pressure of a permeable formation can
be depleted below normal by production
operations (subnormal pressure).
Subnormal formation pressure is less than normal
for the vertical depth of interest.

p = gH
 Pore pressure

Pore pressure supports a portion of the total applied stress

in a rock:
In general:
Total stress (in given direction)=Effective Stress of rock Grains
(given direction)+Pore pressure

If a formation is normally pressured the pore pressure

mechanism can be described as following:
Sediment burial full pore fluid escape
porosity decreases effective rock stress increases
pore pressures are hydrostatic (normal)
 Pore pressure
Cam-Clay law under normal conditions shows
how porosity evolves with depth:

= ln[g z (b w )]
1 1 o
Where:
porosity at a given depth
0 initial porosity of material
compressibility coefficient (constant)
b density of rock
w density of water
z vertical depth
 Over-pressured formations

That means that the pressure is greater

than that exerted by a column of water
at same depth.
Three mechanisms are proposed:
Loading mechanism: sediment burial pore
fluid escape fully restricted porosity &
effective stress are both constant pore
pressure increases at the same rate as the
overburden (i.e. overpressure)
 Over-pressured formations

Restricted fluid escape may occur in thick

low-permeability shale sections
Depends on:
rate of sediment compaction/rate at which fluid is
expelled (higher this ratio the more likely that
overpressure occurs).
Also depends on:
pore fluid compressibility. The lower the
compressibility of the pore fluid, the worse the
overpressure (for all else equal). This is because
the overall rock is stiffer and this will lower the
efficiency of pore fluid expulsion.
 In situ stress/induced stresses
Before the well is drilled the rock in the earth is in a
state of equilibrium.
Naturally occurring stress in place is called in situ
stress.
It is normally compressive due to the weight of the
overburden.
For that reason, in rock mechanics compressive stress
is defined to be positive
Three stresses in material that are perpendicular to
each other are acting
These can act in any orientation in three dimensions:
 In situ stress/induced stresses
Also (and independently from the 3 above stresses) the earth
principal stresses are defined as follows:

H is the maximum of the two horizontal stresses and h is the minimum.

 Overburden stress - sv
Overburden stress is the pressure
exerted on a formation at a given depth
due to the total weight of the rocks and
fluids above that depth.
 In situ stress/induced stresses
The earths stresses are related to a number of different
variables including:
Tectonic setting
Depth
Pore Pressure
Lithology
Temperature
Structure
The relationship between stress and the above
variables is complicated due to local
geographical differences between basins and
interdepence of the above variables.
Intrabasin stress variations are correlated with
lithology and pore pressure.
They are also correlated with tectonic setting
and diagenesis (consolidation and cementing).
 Estimating overburden stress
Typically a value of 22616 Pa/m (1 psi/ft) is
attributed to the overburden gradient, but
at shallow depths the actual value is much
less and at greater depths somewhat
higher.
A density log can be used to determine the
weight of overburden.
It can also be determined from alternatives
such as Eatons variable density curve or the
Wylie time average equation using sonic travel
time, bulk density and porosity.
 Collated worldwide in situ stress data

The value of 0,027

has been adopted
as a generic unit
weight.
But great
differences near
the surface imply
that, if at all
possible, it is the
best to measure
rather than
estimate the
vertical stress
component.
 Vertical stress component
The vertical stress component increases in magnitude as the depth below the
ground surface increases, due to the weight of the overburden.
At shallow depths the minimum principal stress is the vertical stress. Hydraulic
fracture is most likely to occur in a horizontal plane.
The minimum stress 3 is most probably in the horizontal plane at depths
greater than 1000 m the most common scenario to be find in the oilfield.

As the rule of thumb, taking the typical density of rock:

1 MPa is induced by 40 m of overlying rock

 Vertical stress component

In situ stress field is expressed via the

orientations and magnitudes of the
principal stresses.
First approximation is that the three
principal stresses are acting vertically
(one component) and horizontally (two
components).
 Horizontal stress sh, sH
As the overburden squeezes the rock
vertically, it pushes horizontally.
Constraint by surrounding rock creates
horizontal stress.
In most drilling areas the horizontal stresses
are equal.
When drilling near massive structures such as
salt domes or in tectonic areas, the horizontal
stresses will differ and are described as a
minimum (sh) and a maximum (sH).
 Estimating horizontal stress
The minimum
horizontal stress (sh) is
normally determined
from leak-off test.
It is difficult to
determine the maximum
horizontal stress from
field measurements.
Its value can be
estimated using rock
mechanics equations.
 Effective horizontal stress h, H
In tectonically active areas, the
horizontal stresses are not equal.
The maximum horizontal stresses will h = k v + th
be higher, or lower depending on
tectonic movements, by the additional
tectonic stresses, (th) and (tH).
In these areas, the effective horizontal
H = k v + tH
stresses are described by a maximum
and minimum value.
In extreme tectonic environments, (tH)
may be sufficient to make the
horizontal stress higher than the
vertical stress.
 Horizontal stress is equal to (Turchaninov
et.al.):

h = v
1
Where H= H1= H2
The theoretical upper and lower bounds
for the induces horizontal stress, for:
=0 H= 0
=0,25 H= 0,33 v
=0,5 H= v
 Effective stress

The rock matrix does not support the full

load of overburden and horizontal stress.
Part of the load is supported by the fluid in the
pore (pore pressure).
The net stress is the effective stress felt by the
rock matrix
Effective stress is used in rock mechanics to
determine the stability of the wellbore.
 Effective overburden stress - v
That is the v = sv p p
overburden stress
that effectively
62 MPa
stresses the rock
matrix. 34,45 MPa
Effective overburden
stress= Total
overburden stress
Pore pressure

27,55 MPa
 Horizontal stress components

The vertical stress has a particular magnitude at a

point in a rock mass.
The horizontal stress would be induced as a result of
the vertical compression of the rock.
Elasticity theory is assuming isotropic rock, so the
parameters Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio are
introduced:
 Effective horizontal stress h, H
Horizontal stresses are usually equal and are equal
to the effective overburden stress times a lithology
factor (k).
The lithology factor is equal to 1 for fluids but is less
than 1 for more rigid material such a formation rock.

h = k v
 Mean horizontal stress component

Hoek and Brown

suggested:

100 1500
+ 0,3 < k < + 0,5
z z
High horizontal stresses
are caused by factors
which fall into the
categories of erosion,
tectonics, rock
anisotropy, local effects
near discontinuities and
consequential scale
effects.
 Effective rock stress/Biots constant

Terzagi proposed the following relationship:

= -p; where:
effective rock stress (in given direction); in petroleum rock mechanics is always used
in calculations
total applied stress (in given direction)
p pore pressure
Biots constant () describes the efficiency of the fluid pressure in counteracting the total
applied stress.
If (=1) this means that the pore fluid has maximum efficiency in counteracting the total
overburden stress (v) and therefore implies that the effective stress of the rock is lower,
a pessimistic condition for rock failure.
If (<1) this means that the pore fluid is less efficient in counteracting the total overburden
stress (v) and the effective stress of the rock is greater for all else equal.

() is close to 1 for stiff rocks and close to 0 for rocks with low stiffness.

) Biots constant (varies between 0 and 1)

(

= p
'
 Lithology

This effect on earth stresses is complicated-

To analyze the effect on horizontal stresses, the (Rh) is defined:

Rh = h/ v

Where:
h horizontal stress
v vertical stress
(Rh) is merely the normalized horizontal stress horizontal stresses
for various lithologies cannot be just compared; the need to
remove the dependence of vertical stress is essential.
 Tectonic dependence on
earth stresses

A normal fault regime, the vertical stress

(v) is the maximum principal stress (1).
v> H> h
 Tectonic dependence on earth stresses

Thrust (reverse) fault regime, the horizontal stress (H)

is the maximum principal stress (1).
H> h> v
 Tectonic dependence on earth stresses

Slip fault regime, the horizontal stress (H) is

the maximum principal stress (1).
H> v > h
 Rock strength

Rock mechanics is the study of the

mechanical behavior of subsurface rocks.
Core samples (removed from in situ conditions)
are usually tested in compression with
specialized laboratory equipment.
To better simulate subsurface conditions, core
samples tested are also subjected to a confining
pressure (stress).
The rock responds to the stress by changing in
volume or form (deformation) or both.
The change in the rock volume or form due to the
applied stress is called strain.
 Rock strength
Rock subjected to
compressive (+) or tensile
(-) stress can go through
three stages of strain
deformation:
In elastic deformation, the 34,45 MPa
rock, deforms as stress is
applied but returns to its
original shape as stress is
relieved.
In elastic deformation, the
strain is proportional to the
stress (Hookes law).
 Rock strength
When applied stress
reaches the elastic limit, the
rock begins to exhibit
plastic deformation.
In plastic deformation, the
rock only partially returns to 34,45 MPa
its original shape as stress is
relieved.
If continued stress is applied,
fractures develop and the
rock fails (ultimate failure).
It can fail in a brittle manner,
usually under low confining
stress, or in a ductile manner
under higher confining stress.
 Shear strength and shear failure
Under compression rock actually fail in shear it is
easier to slide rock grains past each other than to
crush them.
High confining pressure resists sliding on the shear plane
and the rock appears stronger.
If the confining pressure and axial load were equal,
there would be no shear stress in the rock and no shear
failure.
 Shear strength and shear failure
It is not possible to
accurately reproduce the
effects of pore pressure on
rock strength when testing
core samples from the
field.
In actual borehole
conditions, pore pressure
exerts a force that tends to
push the rock grains apart.
This is why the effective
stress is used in rock
mechanics when applied to
wellbore stability studies.
 Shear strength and shear failure
v +h + H
Mean effective stress =
3
Rock mechanics uses
failure models to predict
wellbore stability.
One such model
considers all three
effective stresses to
calculate the resultant
shear stress.
The mean effective
stress is used by model
to describe the stress
state of the rock.
 Shear strength and shear failure
The failure mode used in the illustrations (Mohr-
Coulomb) neglects the intermediate stress and considers
only the greatest and least effective stress.
The greatest shear stress on the rock occurs on the two-
dimensional plane consisting of the greatest and least stress.
The greatest/and or least stress could be any of the three
depending on in situ environment and well conditions.
 Methods of stress
determination

To estimate the in situ stress state a

minimum of six independent measurements
must be utilized.
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)
has recommended four main methods
the flat jack test;
the hydraulic fracturing test;
the United States Bureau of Mines (USBM) over coring
torpedo; and
the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization (CSIRO) over coring gauge.
 Methods of stress
determination
Some of the indicator of the methods are:
a) borehole breakouts damage to a borehole indicating
principal stress orientations;
b) fault plane solutions back analysis of principal stresses
causing faults;
c) acoustic emission the rock emits low-intensity noise when
it is stressed;
d) inelastic strain relaxation core exhibits
expansion/contraction on removal from the borehole;
e) differential strain analysis pressurizing a piece of rock
indicates its previous stress state through differential strain
effects;
f) core disking geometry stress-induced core fracturing
indicates stress components;
g) observations of discontinuity states, e.g. open discontinuities
are not transmitting stress across the gap
 The four ISRM suggested methods for rock stress
determination and their ability to determine the components of
the tensor with one application of the particular method
 Hydraulic fracturing method provides only two
items of information the breakdown pressure
and the shut-in pressure.
The shut in pressure is assumed to give the
minor principal stress 3.
The major principal stress 1, is given via the
breakdown pressure, the value of 3 and the
magnitude of the tensile strength of the rock.
 The major advantage of the hydraulic
fracturing is that it is the only method of
determining part of the stress state more than
a few hundred meters from man-access (5 to 6
km).
The mayor disadvantage is that the
assumptions have to be made in order to
complete stress tensor:
that the principal stresses are paralel and
perpendicular to the borehole axis,
and that the vertical principal stress can be
estimated from the depth of overburden
 An interval of the borehole is located and
isolated using a straddle packer system.
The isolated zone is pressurized by the
water until fracture occurs in the rock.
The two measurements taken are the water
pressure when the fracture occurs
(breakdown pressure)
and the subsequent pressure required to
hold the fracture open (shut-in pressure)
 It is difficult to identify short portion of the well which is fracture
free.
There can also be difficulties in measuring water pressure accurately.
There is also the question if crack initiates and propagates in same
direction.
It is also often unjustified assumption that the borehole is parallel to a
principal stress
 Strains on a small element of rock
a) axial strain and Youngs modulus
b) lateral strain and Poissons ratio
c) vertical and horizontal strain
 Relation between vertical and
elastically induced horizontal stresses
for the different types of isotropy.
It is a consequence of
the assumption of
transverse isotropy
that the two horizontal
principal stresses will
be equal.
In the case of
orthotropy, the
horizontal stresses can
take different values.
The apparent
inconsistency lies in
the oversimplification
of the rock mass as a
purely isotropic
material.
 Over-pressured formations
Unloading mechanism:
When unloading occurs, stress is relieved and sediments
do not revert to their origin state.
Two natural mechanisms occur that can cause
unloading.
Aqua thermal expansion/hydrocarbon
generation/mineral dehydration/osmosis sealed
formation fluid-volume increase can result in rapid
pore pressure compared with neighbor formations at
same depth.
Uplift/erosion unloading rock grain matrix sealed
formations formation has same pore pressure as
before but due to closed system is abnormally pressured
compared with neighbor formations at same depth.
 Tectonic Stress

Horizontal tectonics stress Very low

permeability seal (e.g. non-
communicating fault) rate of pore
fluid escape cannot keep up with
additional tectonic stress system
does not fracture/fault to relieve stress
pore pressure increases.
 Failure criteria The Mohr-
Coulomb criterion
The plain
along which
failure
occurs and
the Mohr
envelope for
the two-
dimensional
case:
 The shear strength is defined as the
shear stress that fails the rock.

Shear
failure
occurs
when the
shear
stress
along a
plane is
too large.
 The shear strength line is
approximated by the line
giving the best fit to the
If the stress-state
produces a shear
maximum shear points on the
stress that falls failure plane from several such
beneath the shear test.
strength line, the The equation for this line is:
wellbore is stable.
If the shear stress
falls outside the
= S o + tan
stability envelope,
the wellbore is
unstable and
formation failure
will occur.
 Failure criteria The Mohr-
Coulomb criterion

= 0 + n
A rock will undergo shear failure across the plane
if the shear stress () generated in the plane has a
magnitude that exceeds the inherent shear
strength of the rock (0) plus the opposing friction
force (n - frictional resistance), where:
0 cohesion of the material (cohesive strength - So)
static coefficient of internal friction of the material
- shear stress magnitude generated across plane
n normal stress
 The components
of the force
perpendicular to
the plane are a
normal stress
component (n)
and a shear
stress component
().
 () is the angle
between the x-axis
and the normal
component (n).

The shear failure to

occur:
n 0
 Solving for () in this For ()=0 ()=45
(maximum) condition ()=1 ()=67,55
gives: () ()=90

tan 2 = 1
Hence for shear failure () lies

between 45 and 90.
So the direction of shear
The value of (2) lies fracture is always inclined at an
between 90 and 180. angle (0 to 45) to the
direction of maximum stress
(1).
 Furthermore:

The coefficient of friction

= 45 +
() is related to the angle o
of internal friction () as:

= tan 2
generally () is around
30. C0 = 2 n tan 2

Where:
C0 unconfined
compressive strength
 The well-known shear failure criterion is
therefore given by:

1
'
C0 + 3 tan
' 2

The () are included in the maximum and
minimum stresses to signify effective
stress (i.e. total stress-pore pressure).
 Tensile Failure:
When a formation is subject to a tensile stress,
the grains are pulled apart in the direction of the
tensile stress.
A crack perpendicular to the tensile stress is
created, and the formation fails in tension.
I.e. the orientation of the crack is parallel to the
direction of maximum horizontal stress and will open
in the direction of the minimum horizontal stress.
 Tensile Failure:
The criterion for tensile failure is given by:
3 T0

where:
TO = Tensile Strength of the material
3 = Minimum Effective Stress

Creep is a slow continuous deformation of

rock with the passage of time, even though
the stress may be above or below the elastic
limit.
 Extended Leak off Test (Minifrac)
The minimum effective stress (3) in this case is any one of the 3
wellbore stresses (i.e. 3 can be radial stress, tangential stress or
axial stress.
Shear and tensile failure are completely independent of one another.
 Hydraulic fracturing
The main objective of hydraulic methods is to
measure in situ stresses by isolating a section of a
bore hole and applying a hydraulic pressure on its
wall.
The applied pressure is increased until existing
fractures open or new fractures are formed.
The fluid pressure required to open, generate,
propagate, sustain and reopen fractures in rock at
the test horizon is measured and is related to the
existing stress field.
The direction of the measured stresses is usually
obtained by observing and measuring the
orientation of the hydraulically induced or opened
fractures.
 Hydraulic fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is the only rock stress
determination technique that has been
successfully applied for measuring stresses
in deep and very deep boreholes.
In applying hydraulic fracturing the drill hole
orientation (direction) is assumed to be a
principal stress direction.
Usually, this assumption is considered valid
for vertical holes;
in this case the vertical stress is calculated from
the weight of overburden.
 Hydraulic fracturing

Hydraulic test on pre-existing fractures

(HTPF) method is the only hydraulic
method and the only in situ stress
determination method at great depth,
where the drill hole does not have to be
assumed to be vertical and oriented
perpendicular to principal in situ stress
components.
 Hydraulic fracturing
The technique of applying a pressure in a
borehole to fracture a rock formation was first
introduced by Clark (1949.)-
The hydrocrack process, at is was called at
that time, consisted of two steps:
1. injection of a viscous liquid containing a granular
material, such as sand for a propping agent, under
high hydraulic pressure to fracture a formation, and
2. causing the viscous liquid to change from high to
low viscosity so that it could be readily displaced
from the formation.
 Techniques, equipment and
procedures

Hydraulic fracturing
involves the isolation
of part of a borehole
using inflatable
straddle packers and
the subsequent
pressurization of the
hole until the wall
rock fractures.
 Techniques, equipment and
procedures
An impression packer together
with a compass or a borehole
scanner can be used to
determine the orientation of the
fracture.
It consists of an inflatable element
wrapped with a replaceable soft
rubber film.
When the packer is inflated, the film
is extruded into the fracture, which
leaves a permanent impression on
the surface.
With a known orientation of the
impression packer in the borehole,
the direction of the stress field can
be inferred.
 Hydraulic fracturing
When the stresses at the borehole wall
exceed the tensile strength of the rock (which
is typically one-tenth to one-twentieth of the
rock uniaxial compressive strength), a
fracture is formed.
The fracture will propagate in the direction
perpendicular to the minimum in situ principal
stress.
Repeated pumping and recording of the
pressures versus time allows determination of
the principal stresses around the well bore at
the particular depth.
 Where:
Breakdown
SH, Sh are the maximum
pressure (Pc) and minimum
horizontal total principal
Total principal regional in situ stresses
stress field acting at a Sv is the vertical total
point in the Earths principal stress
crust has the following
11, 22 and 33 are the
components:
effective principal
S H = 11 + Po regional stresses with
11 22 and Po is the
S h = 22 + Po formation pore fluid
pressure.
S v = 33 + Po
 Breakdown pressure (Pc)
The fracture initiation
takes place when the The minimum
tangential effective pressure at the
stress 11 is equal to borehole wall to
the tensile strength T:
induce fracture,

oo = T breakdown pressure
is:
T + 3 22 11
And that the hydraulic Pc = + Po
fracture extends in a 1 2
vertical plane 2
perpendicular to Sh. 1
Poisons ratio
Biot coefficient (0 to 1) (0 to 0,5)
 Breakdown is the poroelastic
pressure (Pc) coefficient:

Expressed in terms
(1 2 )
of maximum and
=
minimum horizontal 2 (1 )
in situ stresses:

T + 3 S h S H 2 Po
Pc =
2 (1 )
and
Pc = T + 3 S h S H Po
 Tensile strength T from field
testing
Tensile strength of the
formation could be T = Pc' Pr
determined from the or
( )
difference in pressure
between the first T = 2 (1 ) Pc'
Pr
breakdown pressure Pc
and the borehole
reopening (refrac)
pressure Pr necessary to
open an existing
fracture:
 Tensile strength T from field
testing
The maximum
horizontal in situ
stress SH is equal to:

S H = 3 S h Pr Po
or
S H = 3 S h 2 (1 ) Pr 2 Po
 Shut-in pressure Ps
After injecting a volume of fluid sufficient to propagate
a fracture length equal to about three times the drill
hole diameter, injection is stopped and the hydraulic
system is sealed or shut in.
The instantaneous shut-in pressure Ps is the pressure
when the hydro fracture closes, preventing further flow
in the rock formation.
If the hydro fracture extends in a vertical plane
perpendicular to Sh it is assumed that the pressure at
the time of fracture closing is equal to Sh:

S h = Ps Combining this equation with anyone

for Pc gives the system of two
equations, that can be solved for the
major and minor horizontal in situ
stresses.
 Shut-in pressure Ps
The shut-in pressure can also be determined
from semi-log and log-log plots of pressure
versus time:
 Extended Leak off Test (Minifrac)

Most rocks are

exceptionally weak in
tension. All are far
weaker in tension
than they are in
compression (i.e.
similar to concrete in
buildings, which must
be reinforced with
steel bars if it is to
carry any tensile
loads).
 Methods To Determine Stress
Field

Defining stress field from a horizontal or even a

deviated well may be difficult to achieve.
It is recommended that stress determination be
performed on the vertical section of the well. This would
simplify the process of performing the various tests and
it would also simplify the interpretation of the data.
For sake of completion of the subject, determination of
stress field from a deviated well will be briefly discussed.
 Microfracs For A Vertical Well

Hubbert and Willis stated that a hydraulic fracture

initiates when the induced tangential stress at the
wellbore exceeds the tensile strength of the rock.
The created fracture propagates in a plane
perpendicular to the least principal stress.
It can be deduced the Hubbert and Willis analysis that
the fluid pressure that barely keeps the fracture open is
equal to that least principal stress.
In other words, the fluid pressure at the time the
fracture closes is equal to the least principal stress.
This observation has been the foundation of the micro
fracturing analysis.
 The micro fracture procedure
is simply the creation of a
small (micro) fracture in a
vertical wellbore at the
selected depth with 160 to
320 liter of fluid, measuring
resulting pressure, then
recovering an oriented core
from the bottom of the hole
to obtain a sample of the
actual fracture for visual
observation.
The same core specimen may
be used for strain relaxation
testing.
 Because the stress
orientation azimuth will
determine the direction
in which the horizontal
well segment should be
drilled, measuring this
orientation must be
done prior to kickoff
from the vertical portion
of the well.
Coring tool to take
oriented core from
formation after
micro fracture.
 After the vertical portion is extended down into the
target formation and stress measurements have been
made, the hole may be plugged back and kickoff
performed in the direction found from the microfrac
treatment.
In this manner the most accurate determinations are
made in the actual target formation, as close as
practical to the location in which fracture treatments
will be performed.
Magnitude of the stress in the target formation and
magnitude of least principal stress in adjacent
formations can also be found.
These values are very important when designing fracturing
treatments because they will indicate the geometry of the
fracture, especially the height.
In conjunction with reservoir information about gas caps,
water zones or other factors, these stresses may determine
where the wellbore should be located with respect to target
zone thickness.
 For complete determination of the stress
profile within and around the target
formation, several microfrac tests should
be conducted in the vertical portion of the
well.
At the same time the microfrac procedure is
performed, an additional test is usually done
to confirm and back up measurements taken
on the microfrac.
This test is the strain relaxation procedure,
which measures the least principal stress
orientation by another method, using oriented
core samples.
 A microfrac is usually done as a pump-in/flow back test.
An almost text book example of a microfrac is presented in Figure.
Determining the minimum horizontal stress from a microfrac test is
somewhat controversial.
As shown in the figure it is taken to be point at which the curve
forms a straight line.
There is argument for and against each choice, however being
consistent in picking that point at all tests in a wellbore is probably
more important than the exact location.
 Strain Relaxation Method
The strain relaxation (SR) method (or inelastic strain
recovery method) is a technique for predicting the
directions of the in situ stresses, and consequently, the
induced fracture direction using oriented cores.
To apply this technique, the core is assumed to be
homogeneous, linear, viscoelastic, isotropic and free of cracks.
The strain relaxation method is based on the assumption that a
rock core retrieved from its down hole conditions will relax
(deform an elastically) in proportion to the pre-existing in situ
stress field.
In other works, the time dependent deformation of a core after
it has been cut can be directly related to the in situ stress field.
The theory assumes that the maximum recovered deformation
would occur in the direction of the maximum stress.
 The magnitude of inelastic displacement
(relaxation) exhibited by a rock core
depends on the relieved stresses, time
dependent properties of the rock and the
size of the core.
Also, the time after which no displacement
can be recorded (stabilization time) is rock
type dependent.
The time dependent deformation that a
core displays after its removal from a deep
well is a result of displacements caused by
the following effects:
Release of in situ stresses, which consist of
overburden stresses and in situ horizontal
stresses
Change in core temperature
Release of pore pressure.
 Thus, for a core (with ideal properties)
taken from a vertical well, the diametrical
displacement for a specific period of time
can be expressed by the following equation:

D=Dst (Dp+Dov-Dt)

where:
D - Total displacement of core diameter
Dst - Diametrical displacement due to release of
horizontal stresses
Dp - Diametrical displacement due to release of pore
pressure
Dov - Diametrical displacement due to overburden
pressure
Dt - Diametrical displacement due to temperature
changes.
 AFTER THE WELLBORE
Before drilling, rock stress is described by the in
situ stress; effective overburden stress, effective
minimum horizontal stress, and the effective
maximum horizontal stress. (v, h, H)
As the hole is drilled, the support provided by the
rock is removed and replaced by hydrostatic
pressure. The change alters the in situ stresses.
 AFTER THE WELLBORE
The stress at any point on or near the wellbore can now
be described in terms of:
radial stress acting along the radius of the wellbore; (r)
hoop stress acting around the circumference of the wellbore
(tangential); (t)
axial stress acting parallel to the well path. (z)
These stresses are perpendicular to each other and for
mathematical convenience are used as a borehole coordinate
system.

r a

t
 MECHANICAL STABILITY
Shear failure occurs if the stress-state falls
outside the stability envelop-
Tensile failure occurs if the stress-state falls
to the left of the shear stress axis and
exceeds the tensile strength of the rock.
 MECHANICAL STABILITY
Mechanical
stability is
achieved by
controlling the
parameters
that affect,
hoop, axial
and radial
stress.
 WELLBORE INSTABILITY: CAUSES
AND CONSEQUENCES
The causes of wellbore instability are often classified into
either mechanical (for example, failure of the rock around
the hole because of high stresses, low rock strength, or
inappropriate drilling practice) or chemical effects which
arise from damaging interaction between the rock,
generally shale, and the drilling fluid.
Often, field instances of instability are a result of a combination of
both chemical and mechanical.
This problem might cause serious complication in well and in some
case can lead to expensive operational problems.
The increasing demand for wellbore stability analyses during the
planning stage of a field arise from economic considerations and
the increasing use of deviated, extended reach and horizontal
wells.
 WELLBORE INSTABILITY: CAUSES
AND CONSEQUENCES
In many cases the section of an optimal strategy
to prevent or mitigate the risk of wellbore collapse
might compromise one or more of the other
elements in the overall well design, e.g.:
drilling rate of penetration,
the risk of differential sticking,
hole cleaning ability, or
formation damage.
For drilling situations it is therefore desirable to
apply integrated predictive methods that can, for
instance, help to optimize the mud density,
chemistry, rheology, the selection of filter cake
building additives, and possibly temperature.
 WELLBORE INSTABILITY: CAUSES
AND CONSEQUENCES
Sensitivity studies can also help assess if there is
any additional risk due to the selected well
trajectory and inclination.
Wellbore stability predictive models may also be used to
design appropriate completions for inflow problems
where hole collapse and associated sand production, or
even the complete loss of the well, may concerned.
For example, in highly permeable and weakly cemented
sandstones such predictive tools can be used to decide
whether a slotted or perforated liner completion would
be preferred over leaving a horizontal well completely
open hole .
 Causes of Causes of Wellbore Instability

wellbore Uncontrollable (Natural) Factors Controllable Factors

instability Naturally Fractured or Faulted

Formations
Bottom Hole Pressure (Mud Density)

Wellbore instability is Tectonically Stressed Formations Well Inclination and Azimuth

usually caused by a High In-situ Stresses Transient Pore Pressures

combination of factors
which may be broadly Mobile Formations
Physico/chemical Rock-Fluid
Interaction

classified as being
either controllable or Unconsolidated Formations Drill String Vibrations

uncontrollable (natural)
Naturally Over-Pressured Shale Collapse Erosion
in origin. These factors
are shown in Table 1 Induced Over-Pressured Shale Collapse Temperature
 Uncontrollable factors; Naturally
fractured or faulted formations

A natural fracture system in the rock

can often be found near faults.
Rock near faults can be broken into large
or small pieces.
If they are loose they can fall into the
wellbore and jam the string in the hole.
Even if the pieces are bonded together,
impacts from the BHA due to drill string
vibrations can cause the formation to fall
into the wellbore.
This type of sticking is particularly
unusual in that stuck pipe can occur
while drilling.
 Uncontrollable factors; Naturally
fractured or faulted formations

Figure shows possible

problems as result drilling a
naturally fractured or faulted
system.
This mechanism can occur in
tectonically active zones, in
prognoses fractured limestone,
and as the formation is drilled.
Drill string vibration have to be
minimized to help stabilize these
formations.
 Uncontrollable factors; Naturally
fractured or faulted formations

Hole collapse problems may

become quite severe if weak
bedding planes intersect a
wellbore at unfavorable angles.
Such fractures in shale may
provide a pathway for mud or fluid
invasion that can lead to time-
depended strength degradation,
softening and ultimately to hole
collapse.
The relationship between hole size
and the fracture spacing will be
important in such formations.
 Wellbore instability is caused
when highly stressed
Uncontrollable formations are drilled and if
exists a significant difference
factors; between the near wellbore
Tectonically Stressed stress and the restraining
Formations pressure provided by the
drilling fluid density.
Tectonic stresses build up in
areas where rock is being
compressed or stretched due
movement of the earths crust.
The rock in these areas is being
buckled by the pressure of the
moving tectonic plates.
 When a hole is drilled in an area
of high tectonic stresses the rock
around the wellbore will collapse
Uncontrollable into the wellbore and produce
factors; splintery caving similar to those
produced by over-pressured
Tectonically shale.
Stressed In the tectonic stress case the
Formations hydrostatic pressure required to
stabilize the wellbore may be much
higher than the fracture pressure of
the other exposed formations.
This mechanism usually occurs in or
near mountainous regions.
Planning to case off these formations
as quickly as possible and
maintaining adequate drilling fluid
weight can help to stabilize these
formations.
 Uncontrollable factors; High in-
situ stresses

Anomalously height in-situ stresses, such as may

be found in the vicinity of salt domes, near faults,
or in the inner limbs of a folds may give rise to
wellbore instability.
Stress concentrations may also occur in particularly stiff
rocks such as quartzes sandstones or conglomerates.
Only a few case histories have been described in the
literature for drilling problems caused by local stress
concentrations, mainly because of the difficulty in
measuring or estimating such in situ stresses.
 The mobile formation squeezes
into the wellbore because it is
being compressed by the
overburden forces.
Uncontrollable Mobile formations behave in a plastic
manner, deforming under pressure.
factors; Mobile The deformation results in a
formations decrease in the wellbore size,
causing problems of running BHAs,
logging tools and casing.
A deformation occurs because the
mud weight is not sufficient to
prevent the formation squeezing into
the wellbore.
This mechanism normally occurs
while drilling salt.
An appropriate drilling fluid and
maintaining sufficient drilling fluid
weight are required to help stabilize
these formations.
 An unconsolidated formation falls into
the wellbore because it is loosely packed
with little or no bonding between
particles, pebbles or boulders.
Uncontrollable The collapse of formations is caused by
removing the supporting rock as the well
factors; is drilled.
It happens in a wellbore when little or no
Unconsolidated filter cake is present.
formations The un-bonded formation (sand, gravel,
etc.) cannot be supported by hydrostatic
overbalance as the fluid simply flows into
the formations.
Sand or gravel then falls into the hole
and packs off the drill string.
The effect can be a gradual increase in
drag over a number of meters, or can be
sudden.
This mechanism is normally associated
with shallow formation.
An adequate filter cake is required to
help stabilize these formations.
 Naturally over-pressured shale is
the one with a natural pore
Uncontrollable pressure greater than the normal
factors; Naturally hydrostatic pressure gradient.
Over-Pressured Naturally over-pressured shale are
most commonly caused by geological
Shale Collapse
phenomena such as under-
compaction, naturally removed
overburden and uplift.
Using insufficient mud weight in
these formations will cause the hole
to become unstable and collapse.
This mechanism normally occurs in
prognosed rapid depositional shale
sequences.
The short time hole exposure and an
adequate drilling fluid weight can
help to stabilize these formations.
 Induced over-pressured shale
collapse occurs when the shale
Uncontrollable assumes the hydrostatic pressure
factors; Induced of the wellbore fluids after a
number of days exposures to that
Over-Pressured pressure.
Shale Collapse When this is followed by no increase
or a reduction in hydrostatic
pressure in the wellbore, the shale,
which now has a higher internal
pressure than the wellbore, collapses
in a similar manner to naturally over-
pressured shale.
This mechanism normally occurs in
water based drilling fluids, after a
reduction in drilling fluid weight or
after a long exposure time during
which the drilling fluid was
unchanged.
 Depending upon the application,
Controllable either the bottom hole pressure,
the mud density or the equivalent
factors; circulating density (ECD), is
Bottom hole
usually the most important
pressure (mud
determinant of whether an open
density)
wellbore is stable

Effect of
mud
weight on
the stress
in wellbore
wall
 The supporting
pressure offered by the
Controllable static or dynamic fluid
factors; pressure during either
drilling, stimulating,
Bottom hole working over or
pressure (mud producing of a well,
density) will determine the
stress concentration
present in the near
wellbore vicinity.
Because rock failure is
dependent on the
effective stress the
consequence for
stability is highly
dependent on whether
and how rapidly fluid
pressure penetrate the
wellbore wall.
 That is not to say however, that high mud
densities or bottom hole pressures are
Controllable always optimal for avoiding instability in a
given well. In the absence of an efficient
factors; filter cake, such as in fractured
Bottom hole formations, a rise in a bottom hole
pressure (mud pressure may be detrimental to stability
and can compromise other criteria, e.g.,
density) formation damage, differential sticking
risk, mud properties, or hydraulics

Effect of the well

depth (a)
and the hole
inclination
(b) on wellbore
stability
 Controllable
factors;
Bottom hole
pressure (mud
density)

An increase in MW
decreases hoop stress
and increases radial
stress.
An decrease in MW
increases hoop stress
and decreases radial
stress.
 Transient wellbore pressures
Transient wellbore pressures, such as swab and surge
effects during drilling, may cause wellbore enlargement.
Tensile spalling can occur when the wellbore pressure across an
interval is rapidly reduced by the swabbing action of the drill string
for instance.
If the formation has a sufficiently low tensile strength or is pre-
fractured, the imbalance between the pore pressures in the rock
and the wellbore can literally pull loose rock off the wall.
Surge pressures can also cause rapid pore pressures increases in
the near-wellbore area sometimes causing an immediate loss in
rock strength which may ultimately lead to collapse. Other pore
pressure penetration-related phenomena may help to initially
stabilize wellbores, e.g. filter cake efficiency in permeable
formations, capillary threshold pressures for oil-based muds and
transient pore pressure penetration effects.
 Physical/chemical fluid-rock
interaction
There are many physical/chemical fluid-rock
interaction phenomena which modify the near-
wellbore rock strength or stress.
These include hydration, osmotic pressures, swelling,
rock softening and strength changes, and dispersion.
The significance of these effects depend on a complex
interaction of many factors including the nature of the
formation (mineralogy, stiffness, strength, pore water
composition, stress history, temperature), the presence
of a filter cake or permeability barrier is present, the
properties and chemical composition of the wellbore
fluid, and the extent of any damage near the wellbore.
 MUD FILTER CAKE AND
PERMEABLE FORMATIONS
An ideal filter cake isolates the
wellbore fluids from the pore
fluids next to the wellbore.
This is important for hole
stability and helps prevent
differential sticking as well.
The chemical composition of the
mud and permeability of the
formation control the filter cake
quality and the time it takes to
form.
 MUD FILTER CAKE AND
PERMEABLE FORMATIONS
If there is no filter
cake, the pore pressure
An ideal filter cake helps provide for
near the wellbore a stable wellbore.
increases to the
hydrostatic pressure;
the effective radial
stress is zero.
The simultaneous
decrease in effective
hoop stress causes the
stress-state to move
left in the stability
envelope; decreasing
the stability of the
formation.
 Drill string vibrations (during
drilling)
Drill string vibrations can enlarge holes in some
circumstances.
Optimal bottom hole assembly (BHA) design with
respect to the hole geometry, inclination, and
formations to be drilled can sometimes eliminate this
potential contribution to wellbore collapse.
Some authors claim that hole erosion may be caused
due to a too high annular circulating velocity.
This may be most significant in a yielded formation, a
naturally fractured formation, or an unconsolidated or
soft, dispersive sediment.
The problem may be difficult to diagnose and fix in an
inclined or horizontal well where high circulating rates
are often desirable to ensure adequate hole cleaning.
 Drilling fluid temperature
Drilling fluid temperatures, and to some extent,
bottom hole producing temperatures can give rise
to thermal concentration or expansion stresses
which may be detrimental to wellbore stability.
The reduced mud temperature causes a reduction in
the near-wellbore stress concentration, thus preventing
the stresses in the rock from reaching their limiting
strength.
Variations in hoop stress due the temperature change
have the same effect as pressure surges associated
with swabbing and surging and can cause both tensile
and shear failure down hole.
 Drilling fluid temperature
High bottom-hole temperature wells can experience
stability problems as hoop stress changes because of
temperature differences between the mud and formation.
If mud is cooler than formation, it reduces the hoop stress as the
formation is cooled-
This can prevent shear failure and stabilize the hole, if the hoop stress
were high due to low mud weight.

If the mud weight

is too high and
close to the
fracture gradient,
excessive cooling
can lower the hoop
stress and make it
tensile. which
lowers the fracture
gradient and can
end with tensile
failure or
fracturing.
 Indicators of
Indicators of wellbore instability

wellbore Direct indicators Indirect indicators

Oversize hole High torque and drag (friction)

instability Undergauge hole

Hanging up of drillstring, casing, or coiled
tubing
Excessive volume of
Increased circulating pressures
A list of the indicators cuttings
Excessive volume of cavings Stuck pipe
of wellbore instability Cavings at surface Excessive drillstring vibrations

which are primarily Hole fill after tripping Drillstring failure

caused by wellbore Excess cement volume

required
Deviation control problems

collapse or convergence Inability to run logs

during the drilling,
completion or Poor logging response

production of a well is Annular gas leakage due to poor cement job

shown in Table. They
are classified in two Keyhole seating

groups: direct and

indirect causes. Excessive doglegs
 Indicators of wellbore Direct symptoms of instability
instability include observations of over
Indicators of wellbore instability gauge or under gauge hole, as
Direct indicators Indirect indicators readily observed from caliper logs.
Oversize hole High torque and drag (friction)
Hanging up of drillstring, casing,
Caving from the wellbore wall,
Undergauge hole
or coiled tubing circulated to surface, and hole fill
Excessive volume of
cuttings
Increased circulating pressures after tripping confirm that spalling
Excessive volume of
processes are occurring in the
cavings
Stuck pipe
wellbore.
Cavings at surface Excessive drillstring vibrations
Hole fill after
Large volumes of cuttings and/or
tripping
Drillstring failure
caving, in excess of the volume of
Excess cement
volume required
Deviation control problems rock which would have been
excavated in a gauge hole, similarly
Inability to run logs
attest to hole enlargement.
Poor logging response
Provided the fracture gradient was
not exceeded and vuggy or naturally
Annular gas leakage due to poor fractured formations were not
cement job
encountered, a requirement for a
Keyhole seating cement volume in excess of the
calculated drilled hole volume is also
Excessive doglegs a direct indication that enlargement
has occurred.
 Diagnosing of wellbore
instability mechanisms

Diagnosing the four most important

wellbore instability mechanisms is
described in Figure 9.
Three of these are mechanical
(breakouts, closely spaced natural
fractures and weak planes, drilling
induced fractures) and one of these is
chemical (chemical activity) in origin.
Diagnosing
the 4 most
common
wellbore
instability
mechanisms
 Wellbore stresses model
development
Before describing the variety of predictive models
that are available for assessing wellbore stability it
is necessary to define what constitutes the
failure of a wellbore.
Clearly, the spalling or erosion of manageable amounts
of rock from a wellbore wall does not necessarily imply
that the wellbore has failed.
Providing that sufficient hydraulic power is available to
circulate cavings out of the hole it cannot be claimed
that hole enlargement, or convergence in many cases,
has impaired the ability of the hole to serve its
engineering function that is to gain access to
subsurface hydrocarbons.
It follows, therefore, that wall deformation and yielding
phenomena do not necessarily mean that a wellbore
has failed.
 In-situ Before a wellbore is drilled the
rock is in a state of equilibrium.
The stresses in the earth under
stresses these conditions are known as
the far field stresses (v, H, h
or in-situ stresses.
When the well is drilled, the
rock stresses in the vicinity of
the wellbore are redistributed
as the support originally offered
by the drilled out rock is
replaced by the hydraulic
pressure of the mud.
The stresses can be resolved
into a vertical or overburden
stress, v, and two horizontal
stresses, H (the maximum
horizontal in-situ stress), and h
(the minimum horizontal in-situ
stress), which are generally
unequal.
 Wellbore stresses
The local stress
distribution (x, y, z)
V
around a wellbore are
controlled by mechanical
z
(in-situ stresses),
chemical, thermal, and
aw
hydraulic effects.
y
x h The coordinate referencing
y
system used to calculate
H x1
z iw r
the stress distribution

around a wellbore,
governed by the in-situ
x stress and hydraulic
effects, is shown in
Figure.
The coordinate system for the in-situ stress display
If the redistributed stress state
exceeds the rock strength,
either in tension or
compression, then instability
may result.
Figure shows the wellbore
stresses after drilling.
These are described as radial
stress r, tangential stress
(circumferential or hoop stress)
t , and axial stress a.
The radial stress acts in all
directions perpendicular to the
wellbore wall, the tangential
stress circles the borehole, and
the axial stress acts parallel to
the wellbore axis.
 Local stresses induced by in-situ stress
and hydraulic effects at the wellbore
wall (r = rw), for vertical well can be
described as follows:
r = pw
t = ( x + y ) ( x h ) cos 2 p w
a = z 2( x y ) cos 2
Where:
r = Radial normal stress at wellbore, Pa h = Minimum in-situ horizontal stress, Pa
pw = Wellbore pressure, Pa = Point location angle, degrees
t = Hoop stress at wellbore, Pa z = Normal stress in z-direction, Pa
x = Normal stress in x-direction, Pa a = Axial stress at wellbore, Pa
y = Normal stress in y-direction, Pa = Poisson ration, dimensionless
 Wellbore stresses

According to previous equations it can be

concluded that the radial stress r depends
on the wellbore pressure or mud weight.
The tangential stress t depends on t, t, pw
and .
The wellbore stresses diminish rapidly from
the borehole wall converting to far field
stresses because away from the wellbore the
rock is in an undisturbed state.
 Local stresses induced by in-situ stress
and hydraulic effects at the wellbore
wall (r = rw), for deviated and
horizontal wells, can be expressed by :
r = pw
t = ( x + y ) 2 ( x y ) cos 2 4 xy sin 2 p w
a = z [2 ( x y ) cos 2 + 4 xy sin 2 ]
z = 2 ( yz cos xz sin )
r = rz = 0
Where:
r = Radial normal stress at wellbore, Pa h = Minimum in-situ horizontal stress, Pa
pw = Wellbore pressure, Pa = Point location angle, degrees
t = Hoop stress at wellbore, Pa z = Normal stress in z-direction, Pa
x = Normal stress in x-direction, Pa a = Axial stress at wellbore, Pa
y = Normal stress in y-direction, Pa = Poisson ration, dimensionless
xy, xz, rz, = In-situ shear stress in (x,y,z) z = Shear stress at wellbore, Pa
coordinate system, Pa r = Shear stress at wellbore, Pa
 Local Stresses at the wellbore wall (r =
rw) induced by chemical and thermal
effects can be expressed as follows :
r = 0
p (1 2 ) E t
t = ( pw pi ) + (Tw Ti )
1 3 (1 )
p (1 2 ) E t
a = ( pw pi ) + (Tw Ti )
1 3 (1 )
Where:
r = Radial normal stress at wellbore, Pa t = Volumetric-thermal-expansion-
pw = Wellbore pressure, Pa constant, degrees-1
t = Hoop stress at wellbore, Pa Tw = Wellbore wall temperature, degrees
p = Biots constant, dimensionless Ti = Initial formation temperature,
= Poisson ration, dimensionless degrees
pi = initial pore pressure, Pa
E = Youngs modulus, Pa
 Wellbore stresses
Pore pressure and temperature profiles are
needed to calculate the stress distribution
around a wellbore arising from chemical and
thermal effects.
The pore pressure profile is altered by water
and ion movements into or out of the shale
due to hydraulic, chemical, and electrical
potentials.
Pore pressure and temperature profiles can
be obtained by using equations presented in
literature.
 Shear Failure
Numerous shear failure criteria such as Mohr-
Coulomb, Drucker-Prager, von Mises, modified Lade
criteria and others are proposed in the literature.
The Mohr-Coulomb shear-failure model is one of
the most widely used models for evaluating
borehole collapse.
This model neglects the intermediate principal
stress but includes the effect of directional
strengths of shale.
The shear-failure criterion can be expressed by the
following Eq.
Cohesive strength, Pa Internal friction angle,

( p Pp ) Co + ( 3 p Pp ) tan
degrees
2
1
Pore pressure, Pa
 Shear failure types
Shear Failure The failure will
Shallow occur in the
Knockout radial/axial
a > t > r plane because
the maximum
(a) and
minimum (r)
stresses are
oriented in this
plane (a
vertical plane).
 Shear failure types
Shear Failure The failure will
Wide occur in the
Breakout radial/tangenti
t > a > r al plane
because the
maximum (t)
and minimum
(r) stresses
are oriented in
this plane (the
horizontal
plane).
 Shear failure types
Shear Failure The failure will
High-Angle occur in the
Echelon axial/tangential
a > r > t arc because
the maximum
(a) and
minimum (t)
stresses are
oriented in this
arc (the arc of
the borehole
wall).
 Shear failure types
Shear Failure The failure will
Narrow occur in the
Breakout radial/tangenti
r > a > t al plane
because the
maximum (r)
and minimum
(t) stresses
are oriented in
this plane (the
horizontal
plane).
 Shear failure types
Shear Failure The failure will
Deep occur in the
Knockout radial/axial
r > t > a plane because
the maximum
(r) and
minimum (a)
stresses are
oriented in this
plane (a
vertical plane).
 Shear failure types
Shear Failure The failure will
Low-Angle occur in the
Echelon axial/tangential
t > r > a arc because
the maximum
(t) and
minimum (a)
stresses are
oriented in this
arc (the arc of
the borehole
wall).
 Tensile Failure
Tensile failure occurs when the stress imposed
by drilling mud exceeds the tensile strength of
formations (To).
The extremely excessive weight of drilling mud
creates hydraulic fracture, which triggers
massive circulation loss and matrix deformation.
Hence, this failure becomes the upper limit of
the mud density window in safe drilling practice.
Tensile failure usually occurs when the least
effective principal stress surpasses the formation
rock tensile strength. Mathematically this
criterion can be expressed as follows:

3 Pp To
 Tensile Failure

3 Pp To
The tensile strength of
the rock can be
assumed to be equal to
zero because,
theoretically, a fracture
initiates in a flaw, a
joint, or an existing
fracture. Where:

To apply the criteria in 3 = minimum principle

Eq. all principal stresses
are subject to tensor
transformations.
stress, Pa
Pp = Pore pressure, Pa
To = The tensile strength of
formation rock, Pa
 Tensile failure types
Failure type Geometry and Figure
Orientation
Tensile This failure is
Failure concentric with
Cylindrical the borehole. A
r -To low mud weight
would favour
the failure due
to the
magnitude of
(r) being
lower.
 Tensile failure types
Failure type Geometry and Figure
Orientation
Tensile This failure
Failure creates
Horizontal horizontal
a -To fractures.
 Tensile failure types
Failure type Geometry and Figure
Orientation
Tensile This failure creates a
Failure vertical fracture
Vertical parallel with the
t -To maximum horizontal
stress direction. This is
because, this
orientation is the
tangential stress has
to overcome the
smallest formation
tensile strength.
 Borehole failure criteria
Depending on the rock strength and in-
situ stress magnitude and directions,
large stress deviations between
formation and near-wellbore area may
exist when a hole-wall is established by
drilling.
If these deviations exceed the failure
criteria of a specific rock, the rock fails.
 STATIC ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Youngs modulus and shear modulus can be obtained
from the undrained triaxial test.
The acoustic P-wave velocity appeared to be an
important parameter in the correlations.
The P-wave velocity normal to the bedding at down hole

( )
stress is:

v p = v p ' + v p p 2 , 5 v p p 2 , 5 + v pcon
Where:
vp P-wave velocity normal to bedding, km/s
vp - P-wave velocity measured at overburden stress, km/s
v p p 2, 5 - average P-wave velocity at 2,5 MPa confining pressure, km/s
vpp2,5 - P-wave velocity measured at 2,5 MPa confining pressure, km/s
vpcon change in P-wave velocity during consolidation, km/s
 STATIC ELASTIC PROPERTIES
There is also the relation between porosity
and (strength) P-vave velocity-
Where:
porosity, %
= 227,8 vv2,37
The P-vave interval transit time (tp in s/ft) from wire line
logs some more correlations can be written:

Where: (
Co = 0,77 304,8 / t p ) 2,93

E = 0,076 (304,8 / t p )
Co uniaxial compressive strength, MPa 3, 23
E Youngs modulus, MPa
G Shear modulus, MPa G = 0,030 (304,8 / t p )3,30
 Estimation of rock mechanical
properties from the Well logs

The methods can be grouped into three main

categories: measurement while drilling,
wireline logging and well tests.
In situ stresses are given by the three principal
stresses and three parameters giving the
orientation of the principal stresses.
The stress level determines whether a rock is critically
loaded or not.
They influence the elastic parameters and the strength
parameters.
 Estimation of rock mechanical
properties from the Well logs

Elastic parameters:
For an isotropic medium there are two
independent elastic moduli.
But these two parameters have a real and an
imaginary part, that both will vary with
frequency and with stress level.
These parameters will vary with frequency and
with stress level, such that even in the
isotropic case the use of two parameters is
clearly a simplification.
 Estimation of rock mechanical
properties from the Well logs
Strength parameters:
Strength of a material is dependent on the
stress level and failure criteria that
describe actual data have at least 2 to 3
adjustable parameters.
 Estimation of rock mechanical
properties
The formation strength data can be
correlated to log data.
Sonic log data are typically used to derive the
in-situ acting stress magnitude, whereas the
directions of those stresses can be obtained
using dip log.
Additionally, sonic data can also be used to
estimate rock strength parameters.
 Estimation of rock mechanical
properties
There is a good correlation between intrinsic formation
strength and the dynamic elastic constants determined
from sonic-velocity; using wave-propagation relationships,
from measured elastic-wave velocities and density
measurements.
Static elastic constants may be determined from a specimen of the
rock under load in a testing machine.
For an ideally elastic material, the static and dynamic constants are
the same; linear stress-strain relationship over the load range.
For rocks, the dynamic elastic constants are considerably higher
than static.
The difference is most pronounced at low confining stress.
 Estimation of elastic parameters
The most important vs
2
(3 v 4 vs
2 2
)
Edyn =
p
method for estimation of
v 2p vs2
elastic parameters is
acoustic logging, and in 2
vp 2 vs
2
dyn =
( )
particular acoustic
wireline logs. 2 v p vs
2 2

Acoustic logging tools measure

acoustic wave velocities which
together with density
information provide the Where:
dynamic elastic parameters;
dynamic Youngs modulus (Edyn) vs rock shear velocity
and dynamic Poissons ratio
(dyn). vp rock compressional
velocity
 Estimation of elastic parameters
2
Poissons ratio (dyn) can also
1 t s
be determined through the 1
wave slowness data.
2 tc
Where: dyn = 2
dyn Poissons ratio
t s
ts shear slowness 1
tc compressional slowness tc
There is also the possibility
to determine the static
Youngs modulus from
dynamic one.

Es = 0,018 10 6 Edyn
2
+ 0,422 Edyn
 Uniaxial compressive strength
USC = 0,087110 6 E K b (0,008 Vsh + 0,0045 (1 Vsh ))
where (vsh )is a common petrophysical parameter determined
from gamma ray (GR) log. Where:
GR GRclean
vsh = Kb is incompressibility
GRshale GRclean
modulus
The cohesive strength can be obtained from:

p = 2 UCS tan
where is the orientation plane :

= +
4 2
Uniaxial compressive strength
Correlations to
predict uniaxial
compressive
0,96
strength as a UCS = 243,6
function of porosity
or p-vave velocity UCS = 0,77 V p
2,93

(Vp) from sonic log:

Uniaxial compressive strength
Horsrud also
introduced = 50,7 0,032 Ccl + 0,24 Ckl
correlations to
estimate failure and
angle () with = 2 90o
respect to the
where for shale :
amount of clay
content: 45o < < 60o