WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION I OBJECTIVES After reading and studying this chapter, you will: « Understand the key factors that affect and control wind power Be able to apply these factors to calculate available power to a wind turbine Be able to estimate annual available power as a function of rotor swept area and wind speed Be able to estimate the increases in wind speed as a function of tower height © Understand the limitations of wind power available to the turbine rotor as related to Betz’s Law a7* Understand the factors that affect system efficiency * Be able to estimate annual energy output using the swept area method * Be able to estimate annual energy output applying a power curve * Understand the mechanical nomenclature of horizontal axis and vertical axis wind turbines * Be able to discuss speed control and braking Early windmill Modern wind turbine BERGE This chapter discus explains the main factors affecting wind energy and hhow these factors are used to calculate available wind power. Wind speed and the area inscribed by the rotor blades in motion are key variables used to estimate an~ nual energy available to a turbine. Examples will illustrate the use of graphs and power curves for calculating wind speed, power, and energy output. Just as wind speed isa key factor in producing Power, itcan also havea damaging effect on the mechanics ofa turbine. This chap ter will discuss methods used to protect against excessive wind speed, Wind is a source of renewable energy, as is power from the sun, hydropower, geothermal, and fuel cells. For these sources to achieve a high level of usefulness, 478 Chapter 11. WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTIONthey must be used efficiently and cost-effectively in renewable enerBy Syren. Well tieeigned, assembled, and maintained wind systems have met these ‘challenges, but there is always more work to be accomplished. ‘This chapter explains and illustrates some of the key factors involved when applying wind power to generate electrical power. Horizontal axis wind turbine BASIC WIND TURBINE DESIGN [Notall ofthe energy from wind flowing past a point can be recovered. According ‘0 seta ons aa ideal wind machine can extract no more than 59.3% of the available wvind power ata points therefore, if a wind turbine is 100% efficient it can extract only 59.3% of the available wind power. vo common designs are horizontal axis and vertical axis wind turbines, Fone eerie wind turbine (HAWT) has the generator mounted a the top of ie tl axis wind turbine (VAWT) has the generator mounted near” the bottom of the tower close to the ground. croatarind turbines are mounted on towers and catch the wind’s energy with blades attached to a bub and shaft. As the blades catch the wind, they rotate the haf spinning a rotor in a generator o alternator that produces electrical pove sane pee a wind turbine converts wind energy to mechanical energy, which is seer ted to electrical energy. Ifa turbine is placed on a taller tower, wind ‘elocity improves and power output increases. Wind turbines come it different vizen ranging from output power of less than 1 kilowatt to many megawatts, Com: panies and laboratories have categorized turbines by three general electrical pine Patput ratings: small turbines from 1KW to 1OOKW, midsize turbines from 100KW fo IMW, and utility size turbines greater than IMW. Another general range some, Moa teed is residential from 400W to SOKW, industrial from 30KW to 250kW, and vulty greater than 950KW, Note the overlap of ranges and gaps in ranges so KeeP in mind that these are only guidelines. Chapter 11. WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 479Rotor blades range in total length from less than 10 feet to more than 200 feet, Ifthe length of the blade from the tip to the hub is 20 feet, then the diameter is 2X 20 feet, or 40 feet. ‘The next sections explain the effects that factors such as wind. ‘speed, power den- _ sity, and energy density have on power output of a wind turbine. SPEED OF THE WIND and when in motion, the potential energy i ey fem is mass (weight) and vis velocity (wind speed). The higher the wind speed, the higher the wind energy. As explained in Chapter 2, power (P) is energy (1) per unit of time (Q, or P = energy/time = E/t = Ymv'/t A more useful equation for finding available wind power makes a substitution for ‘mass, and the equation becomes ere P (tho) isair density, A is the inscribed area of the rotating blades, and V* is wind velocity cubed. Ay density (p) is easly found on air density charts, area (A) is measured of calculated, and velocity (V) is measured or obtained from wind charts and tables, Obserce {hat wind power is proportional tothe cube of wind speed. If wind speed doubles ad density and area remain constant, wind power increases by a factor of eight, For example, if the speed increases from 0 2 2=8 ion P Pesatneat $2 level and a temperature at 59°F (15°C), the density of air (p) is 0.07651Ib/f* or 1.225kg/m’. This is referred to as “standard conditions” At cea dard conditions and where the swept area of the rotor blades is constant, turbine Power (P) is controlled by wind speed cubed (V). It should be obvious that wind speed has a significant effect on turbine power. A Strong constant wind, within the design limits of the turbine, generates significant power, but keep in mind that air isa fluid, although much less dense than water. The force of water is understood by all of us. During a tsunami and 4 flood, water knocks over buildings and washes away complete towns. As with foods, local weather conditions play a central role in affecting wind speed, When the wind exceeds a certain turbine design maximum, then the turbine ie shat down before the electric generator or the tower structure is damaged by the force of the wind. Physical properties ofthe land have a significant effect on the speed and turbu- lence of the wind. If you have the choice of placing the turbine at the foot of « bill ‘or atthe ridge ofthe hill, select the ridge or just below the ridgeline away from the direction of the prevailing wind. Wind speed is usually a {greater at this location rather than at the base ofthe hill. f wind passing over a hi FIGURE 44-4. Contour o Win direction issue can usually be resolved having a sufficiently high © Cengage Lesring 2013, 480 Chapter 11. WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTIONFIGURE 44-2 Wind Wind Turbine turbine above area of Turbulence: tower Increasing tower height wil move the rotor blades above the turbulence caused bya building ot hill obstruction (Figure 11-2) “Turbulence is 2 pid change indirection and speed caused by obstacles inthe» in “These can be buildings, trees, or rough ground surface and must be Ed when selecting a site fora wind turbine WIND POWER DENSITY “When evaluating the available power at a location bel bine, measurements are made relative to of these measurements is called wind power den: ry vind speed, and area, A, isa specific surface area thatthe wine is blowing through vr striking. Power, P.is measured in watts and PIA is (W/m) EXAMPLE 14-1. anon eee 8 a Wind is blowing at a constant speed of 10mis (meters per second) ‘hrough a oytinder, as illustrated in Figure 11-3. The density 1 agli (tandar contions) Find wind power density (WPD). WPD is the ratio of power to area, or WPD = PIA = YapV* a“ PIA = Ye x 1.225kg/m® x (1OmIs)> = % X 1. 225 x 1000 = SrzeWine | wes Observe that the-area-of the. front. surface of the eylinder isn't per square area. (Note: The front surface of the cylinder is a circa, FIGURE 14-4 Example 1-2 ‘and the area of a circle is A = nr’, which is also the area inscribed by dev! Sepicnanae the rotating blades of a wind turbine.) [ i | Dia=7.0t EXAMPLE 14-2 | Wind fe stiking the rotor blades of the wind turbine in Figure 11-4 | Hin ent opeed of 1Omis. Density 9,8 1225kgim’. Find WPD. | PIA = Yap = ve x 1.225 x 1000 = 612.5Wim? Radius = ia. Beast Chapter 11 WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 484epsnr cami ht i hwnd i aying ogre WEDS of both examples are equal, even though the diameter swept hve area is larger than the cylinder (b "\Targer area) Power density (P/A) isan interesting relation, since its based on a Note: Values of air density (p) at sea level and 15°C (59°F): 1 225kg/m? and 0.076Ib/A®, Power density (P/A) at sea level and 15°C (59°F): In the formula P/A = Y4pV" the 2, GH term "Ap can be substituted as follows: Co s PIA = 0.6125 V? where V is m/s, A is m?, and P is watts \; “PIA = 0.0550 V? where V is mph, A is m?, and P is watts s © > [5 , PIA= 0.0051 V? where V is mph, A is f2, and Pis watts roure sss ———SSS«C-EFFECTS OF AREA air _ | ON POWER Wind power density is PIA = ¥pV* and can be con. verted to power: P = YpaV When dealing with a wind turbine, that area is the swept area of the turbine blades, or the area inscribed by the rotation of the blades. Figure 11-5, the inscribed area 19 Leaning dius, r, is half the diameter of EXAMPLE 11-3 If the blade diameter from tip to tip in Figure 11-5 is 7 meters (23 feet), find the swept area. A=n0 andr =% x diemeter = % x 7 = 3.5m A= 3.14 x 3.5% = 38,46m? EXAMPLE 11-4 Find the available wind power (P) in Example 11-3 when air density is at sea level and 18°C and wind speed is 6.68mis (ismph). ‘A= 38.46m? (from Example 11-3) Power density is PIA = YipV?, Therefore, powers P= VspVEA, P= 4 1.25 x 86 x 98.46 = 14% 1.225 x 290 348 = ARE? EXAMPLE 44-5 Find the available wind power if the swept area of Example 11-4 is doubled and other conditions remain the same. 182 Chapter 11 WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION‘The new area is A= x 38.46 yo x 1.226 x 6,68" X 76.92 = Ye X 1.225 X 299 X 76.92 mes — What is the blade diameter in Example 11-57 BETz’S LAW risk rec BA io gn all of the available wind ferman scientist, Albert Betz, developed a rela- tion that indicates dae seetmen Limit of converting wind energy t0 power i50.599 niga or 39.3%. IFa turbine was designed to be 100% efficient, Moses theme ST smum power output would be 59.3% of the available power. This can be written as oe an equation: P = 4p X A X V" X 0.593. “Therefore, in Example 11-5, P = 14,086 X FA 0,593 = 8353 watts. 2 Ses do not yield 59.3% eficiency. A well-designed resdentit emul wind turbine with ficient mechanics and clectrca! sytem ‘will seldom yield me wyaluate a system conservative: Iyuse an ef Jeh inchides the mechanics and the generator. DETERMINING WIND POWER DENSITY USING WIND SPEED TABLES AND DISTRIBUTIONS |Wind speed varies from day to day and from month to mon’ year woud require cleatons Mae pany measurements during the year. IF48 measurements 1° he per day, then the numberof measurements per Yea s 500 (48 X 365). This srould require a computer program to calculate WED for each data point and then | fof data points. As a formula this would be FIGURE 14-6 Plovofwind’spgedm Sistaburone= Raz ler Ae 12, and the average PIA is ‘average pa= Dey Hove + vapv2 + Oe ay a factor plotted as graphs 1 graph is illustrated in Fig- distributions have been put into tabl for sites throughout ¢ les and also hhe world. A typical Cangnae vearing Chapter 11 WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 183‘These graphs (curves) have a parameter called the ‘The EPF varies for curves with different shapes. I the and the wind speed distributio h as illustrated in Figure 1 ip (e the actual ow does aver. -d ie power density . Sazression becomes P/A = % X p x V? EPE. Ifa site has a published Rayleigh distribution, then annual average wind speed is available from the graph. Many ugas of North America and parts of Europe can be represented by Rayleigh dis- tribution. Mat 0 cr fe ese data (annual average speed and p) are then “plugge 1 PIA expression using an EPF of 1.9, EXAMPLE 11-6 Gasume the Rayleigh distribution in Figure 11-6 applies to a site, and the air ‘ensity is 1225kg/m”. The average wind speed is 5.6m/s and EPF is 1.9, Fing Pan PIA = Ye X px V9X EPF = Ya x 1.225 x 5.5? 1.9 = 193.6Wim? When using an EPF of 1.9 be sure the site is represented bya Rayleigh distribution. Sites that are represented by other distributions can have the EPF greater than or less than 1.9. wind explore Average wind speed varies by site location. The Rayleigh distribution ean shitt 881he location changes, but the factor 1.9 is still used for determining the WD if the shifted distribution is stil represented by a Rayleigh distribution, A site hae © average wind speed of §.5m/s, pis standard density, and the distribution isn’t Rayleigh. Find WPD (P/A). At site that has an EPF of 2.4 EXAMPLE 11-7 In Example 11-6, PIA is "92.6Wim*. Apply Betz’ Lew to find the maximum available power density prepa Department est Laboratory. Maps and tables are listed for wind speed a: er density, inthe chert is Bard on a Rayleigh i sonnei ae ne apie height fom a speed at another height, Maps and tables list ranges of lessee of Bower density for small, medium, and large wind turbines as‘ function ot Wind speed, The measurements are listed at heights of 10m, 30m, and 50m Deters Selecting a specific site for a wind turbine(s), always make measurements to verify 484 Chapter 11. WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTIONFIGURE 41-7 Classes of wind power density CLASSES OF WIND POWER ‘Small Wind Turbine ‘Wind Speed and Power Wind Speed and Power ‘at 10m (33 f) ‘at 20mm (100 ft) clase Power ‘Speed Power Speed Density laws) (ph) |, Density (ers) (mph) (wim) (wim) " v bo eo 8 2 8 a1 92 | —|— 10 ——— 44 99 |— 160——— 51 114 2 |— —|— 160 ——— 51 1s |— 40 ——— 59 115 3 |. —|— 209 ——— 55 123 |— 30——— 65 146 4 | —|— 250 ———— 60 134 | — 400 ———_ 70157 e 2 | —|— 300 ——— 63 143 |— 480———— 74 166 & 6 2 | —|— 400 ——— 70 157 |— 640 ———— 82 184 7 | —|—1000 ——— 95 213 |—1600——— 11.1 248 8 a | —|— 1200 ——— 10.1 22.6 | — 1920 ———_ 118 264 | | 2 ite-specific variables. These maps and tables are available at stuptatd or mae indi ml a 117illustrates the typeof table available from the “Wind Energy Resource Atlas ofthe United States” Pawer is equal to Power Density times Area or P = P/A X Swept Area. a y pt wi ast this question may ae: “What th wi HEHE > cree in wind sped a fonction of tower height canbe cal tion Vy = Hy/Ho)!” X Vo cw wind speed, Vo = old wind speed, Hy = new height, Ho = old A as sht, and 1/7 (0.1 mnent. The exponé cored abo zarfe where Vix hei EXAMPLE 11-8 ‘A.wind turbine is installed on a 10m (33ft) tower. The turbine is reinstalled on @ ‘25m (82ft) tower, Average wind speed at 10m is 4.4mis, What is the estimated wind speed at the new height? (Use the 1/7 Power Law.) Vo = 4.4mis, Ho = 10m, and Hy = 25m, Vy = (Hy/HolP%2* x Vo Vac = (25/10)"2" x 4.4 = 1.14 x 4.4 = 5.01mis (14% increase) Power Law). Chapter 11 WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 485es begin to produce output (7.5-Smph), ee Power (kw) 6 8 1012141618202224267830323436 Wind Speed [mph 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Wind Speed (mph) € & @ Cy As previously discussed, wind speed varies; therefore, power output varies throughout the ye turers usually publis and power curve can be used for srpose ‘most medium to large turbines, points on the curve are monitored through a table, which i stored in a computer and used to adjust rection to improve wer curve canbe used to find the energy autpt (kWh) by miping ower, year ifthe number of hours at a certain win speed is known. For example, from the curve in Figure 11-8a, if t is 12mph for 240 hours in a month, then for that period the energy output X 240hr = 1320KWh; he gee! averages 10mph for 240 hours, then for that period the energy output 240hr = 720kWh; and ifthe wind speed averages l4mph for 240 hours, then for that period the energy output 240hr = 1776kWh, The average output for the month is 1320 + 720 + 1776 = 3816kWh. For improved accu racy, the period (720 hours/month) is broken into additional samples of wind speed and time period results are entered into a spreadsheet. ‘These curves, should indicate When in doubt with re- gard to power curve specifications, contact the manufacturer. When comparing turbines using the power curve, it is important to consider the different variables ‘that can affect power output and ensure that machines are being evaluated against 186 Chapter 17 WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTIONthe same, the environmental the same conditions: for example, th ‘may be rated at a high watt output, but "A word of caution: A generator if hen the generator power means nothing a 1g when evaluating a system! explore rong x¥8000 hes the power curve ilustrated In Figure T-8 Ifthe Aversa wind speed increases from véeph to ZOMph, what =the approximate Perea cane Series ee Ho ree Ps tm indus = SS and ind the total enorgy for 720 hours @ wind speed tomph/240nr, yamph/240hr, vamphi24onr ANNUAL ENERGY OUTPUT Key factors that control turbine power have been examined. They are wind speed ee. sri pone ens Power density, P/A = 4p XV, yearend power (watt) when the equation is multiplied by As hen 4p x ‘yi A, and P is measured in wat [As previously explained, In Chapter 2, energy is defined as watts times is 3600W and if that et BY 4g hours, then the energy delivered (or consumed) is 3600 x 360,000Wh, or 360kWh. "To find the energy delivered 8760 hours (24 X 365 = 8760) power 104 ply the watts by pl se 5760h1/1000 = 31,536KWh/year, or 31.536MWh/ year. yen AEO = 3600W EFFICIENCY (49.6%). The output to get total efficiency of a system. ficiency is discussed in detail in Chapter 10) EXAMPLE 11-9 Fora system, PIA = 400Wim’, blade radius is 1.5m, and system efficiency is 38%. Find AEO, Calculate swept area: ani? = 3.14 x 15? = 7.08m Calculate power: P= PIA x A= 400Wim? x 7.06m? = 2824W Chapter 11. WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 487Calculate AEO: AEO = (P x helyr)/1000 AEO = (2824 x 87601/1000 = 24,738kWh/yr At 38% efficiency, AEO is ‘AEO = 24,738kWh x 0.38 =9,400kWh/yr = 9.400MWhiyr I" the machine output doesn’t meet your yearly requirements, there are some options: ‘ if the oF use a hybrid system (wind and solar Use more grid power; CAPACITY FACTOR A measurement hich, equals actual power output divided by rated power output Capacity factor = actual output/rated output AA turbine requires a certain minimum wind velocity before it generates electric- Ub. Ifless than minimum, the power output is zero. Also, at times during turbine operation, power will be generated at the maximum output, and at other times, ft will be below the maximum, but above zero, Capacity factor is onie measure of the tivity of a wind pe ime. The specification will indicate She minimum and maximum wind speeds to achieve power input and when power output is zero; these are usually at cut-in and cut-out EXAMPLE 11-10 A turbine has a rated (nameplate) energy specification of 10,000kWhiyr, and the actual energy output is B000kWhiyr. What is the capacity factor? Capacity factor sctual output/rated output ~ 8,000kWh/10,000kWh = 0.8 (80%) Factors that can affect AEO are + Downtime due to maintenance + Wind below cutin + Wind at cut-out + Turbine power not needed; therefore, power is off onsen INTRODUCTION TO WIND TURBINE MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION A ‘ind turbine is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The Figure 11-9 and ein. shaft, And this is called a 488 Chapter 11 WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTIONFIGURE 41-9 Horizontal axis wind turbine and description blades are connected to the hub, which is connected to a shaft, and the shaft rotates with the hub. The shaft is H directly connected to the generator or connected to the f generator through a gearbox. Housing the gearbox and generator is the nacelle, which can be accessed from the support tower. Some large turbines eng | and windaensorst postion the turbine, and these mé Nacelle tors the nacelle. For smaller turbines, the i nacelle and tail are connected by a pipe or tail boom, | ne Shaft Gearbox | forming mechanical structural support and wiring ac- cess, Most sinall and some medium-sized turbines use a tail to keep them pointing into the wind, as illustrated there are three basic tower styles: freestanding, fixed A ower supports the turbine from the ground, and | ers (Figures 11-10 guyed, and tilt-up. Freestar and 11-11) are made frot gue ase and held in place by steel cables running at an angle from the tower to the base. These cables are cally" ale ‘Tilt-up towers are usually of tubular design and hinged at the base. The tilt feature makes it pos- sible to lower the tower and maintain the tower and generator from the ground, ' ‘Wind turbines can have the blades oriented either about the hori- zontal axis, a illustrated in Figure 11-9, or about the vertical axis, as illustrated in Figure 11-12. When mounted about the vertical axis, 1 they are called vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTS. Figure 11-12 is called HAWTs have the blades and generator positioned near the top of the tower and usually have the blades pointed into the wind, which re- ‘duces the turbulence that would be set up if the wind passed through the tower and over the generator before striking the blades. Many sinall turbines have a tail vane that rotates the unit and keeps the FIGURE 44-40 Freestending tubular tower FIGURE 44-14. Freestanding lattice tower ‘8 Cengage Lanring 2013 Chapter 11 WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 489FIGURE 14-42 Vertical axis wind turbine —Blades Shaft Diameter. : HHolpny VAWTS have a vertical shaft. The blades are mounted in-line with the shaft, and the generator is mounted below the blades near the bot- ofthe shaft and near the 7 surornam | OVERSPEED CONTROL s Wind turbine designs must consider speed control to prevent me- L_Senemrcossseramenoon. | na damage so cone el cn operat me tem is operating above rated speed. When operating above rated speed, braking is initiated to bring the system to a safe speed. The braking methods are mechanical and electrical Mechanical braking often consists of furling, which changes the rotor dynamics of the blades. The blade pitch can be adjusted, placing the thin edge ofthe blade into ‘the wind rather than the broad side of the blade, changing aerodynamics, Ifthe blades and generator body are rotated 90 degrees about the vertical axis, then wind direction is parallel to the blades, and the blades don't rotate. The process of rotating about the vertical axis is called yaw. The reduction in rotor speed affects the power output and also prevents mechanical damage to the turbine and tower under high-wind conditions. Braking is also initiated by quickly changing electrical load. When a genera- tor is quickly disconnected from its electrical load and reconnected (switched) to resistors, causing more current to flow, the generator becomes harder to turn and decreases turbine speed. This type of speed control is called dynamic braking. Dy- namic braking and furling can be used together to reduce rotor speed. In many small turbines, a manual brake (think emergency car brake) is utilized bya person during maintenance or high winds. GEARBOXES Gearboxes are used when the turbine rotor shaft is not connected di- FIGURE 11-43 Gearbox recliytothe eacraue Suan to high Shaft Shaft 4 And, conversely, it pending on the gear rato, t Most large turbines use a gearbox. The blades of large power utility mass and turn at slow speeds. M, increasing the output power, led by Small turbines often have the rotor shaft connected directly to the generator because the blades are turning ata faster RPM than in larger machines with massive blades. i a ‘The AC can be rectified to DC and then passed through an inverter to adjust out- ut. Some ectly c Cc : 190 Chapter 11__ WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION Ns /What is wind? 2, What is the difference between electrical power and electrical energy? +3. Avwind turbine converts mechanical energy to what type of energy? ‘4 Explain why power is affected more by wind speed than by swept area When a wind turbine is installed close to and atthe same height as buildings, is productivity increased or decreased? _ When air density increases (gets heavier)-does power increase or decrease? asa density increases (gets heavier) what could be the mechanical effects ona turbine? 8, When tower height is increased, what isthe effect on wind speed? 15, 16. 18. 19. When tower height is increased, what is the effect on swept area? Explain the Betz limit, When yaw motion occurs toa HAW, what occurs mechanically? What occurs electrically? Find wind power density when p is 1.225kg/m” and V Is 847mls. Find power for Problem 12 when the rotor diameter is 4.5m. “Two turbines, Aand B, are located on the same site. Wind speed and air density are the same for both turbines, Turbine A has a calculated power of 1 e7W, and turbine B has a calculated power of 2494W. What is the most likely reason why turbine B's power is twice that of turbine A? In Problem 14, what isthe value of swept area for turbine A and for turbine BE (p is 1.225kg/m® and V is 4.47m/s) ‘A wind turbine has a nameplate rating of 1000W at 11m/s. What is the A enum kWh per month (30 days at 24hriday)? What isthe annual KW {a months? If the actual annual energy produced is 6570KWh, what isthe capacity factor? ‘wind turbine is installed at a site with the following: PIA = 62Wim’, swept iene is Sin’, EPE = 1.9 (Rayleigh distribution), and p = standard condt tions, Find power (P) and wind speed (mis). iA turbine mounted on a 60-ft tower has an average wind speed of 1Smph. To increase the wind speed by 25%, what tower height is required? Using Figure 1-8a (power curve) at an average speed of 20mph for 240hr vad [2h for 480hr, what isthe approximate energy output for 720 hours (30 days)? CHAPTER 11 WIND TURBINE POWER MEASUREMENTS AND MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 194.OBJECTIVES After reading and studying this chapter, you wi * Understand the advantages of three-phase power * Understand the basic design of AC generators (alternators) * Be able to calculate voltage, current, and power for three-phase wye (Y) and delta (A) connections * Understand the operating principle of induction motors * Be able to calculate synchronous speed * Be able to explain the factors necessary to produce a rotating magnetic field« Be able to explain the difference between a synchronous induction generator and an asynchronous induction generator * Be able to explain why a wind turbine drives an induction machine above synchronous speed © Be able to explain the operational difference between a three-phase induction motor and a three-phase asynchronous induction generator * Be able to explain the relation between turbine shaft torque and rotor speed © Be able to explain why turbine output can increase significantly with only a small increase in RPM © Be able to discuss the relationship between torque and electrical power when a wind turbine is operating above synchronous speed * Be able to calculate slip « Be able to explain advantages of asynchronous induction generators versus synchronous generators when applied to wind turbines * Be able to explain advantages of 2 squirrel cage induction generator « Be able to describe a wound rotor induction generator * Be able to describe a double fed induction generator (DFIG) * Be able to explain the advantages of a DFIG applied to wind turbines the modern world are motors and wath ofthese are electromechanical machines. A motor, when connected Senet petvical source, turns a mechanical shaft that does workfor example, the shaft turns a drill for boring holes. Therefore, i The current supplies a load and does work—for ‘example, it turns on an electri light. Therefo 494 Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONgy by This chapter explains the ors used for: seed, mechanical FIGURE 12- Magnetic, field around eurrent- a 8 carrying wire -—a are made from two basic parts, e stator) isthe: is usually made from paits of electromagnets§ ————_____ fabricated inside an iron housing. The stator is similar for a number FIGURE 12-2 Turning force exerted ‘of motor types. the id is fabricated differ- on wire ently, depending on the operating principle applied to the motor. In this exampl 3 illustrates the operation of a In Figure 12-3, AC current supplies the electromagnets, produc- ing a magnetic field. Assume that electromagnet pole 1 begins as a North Pole and pole 2 begins as a South Pole (Figure 12-33). North Pole 1 repels the North Pole of the rotor’s permanent magnet, and South Pole ts the North Pole of the rotor, turning the rotor clockwise. “The South Pole of the electromagnet attracts the North Pole of (or, and the North Pole attracts the South Pole of the rotor (Figure 12-36) until the rotor is horizontal (rotated 180°). (Figure 12-4) ind current flow through the coils changes direc- tion. Blectromagnet poles 1 and 2 change polarity (Figure 12-30). The rotar’s North sles repelled by the North Pole of the electromagnet (pole 2) and attracted by the South Pole (pole 1). Figure 12-3d completes the 360-degree rotation of the rotce and the sine wave again changes polarity, repeating hang onized tot e-phas and the rotor’s perma- nent magnet is pulled by the changing field polarity AC INDUCTION GENERATOR the same principle as an induction motor, anc 1¢ principle of operation is different than that of Figure 12-3, in which the rotors permanent magnet i pulled along by the change infield polarit i ger current flowing through the stator dev magnetic field that moves or rotates from pole to pole. As the rotating stator field cuts the rotor, current are induced into the rotor, producing a magnetic field. Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 195 SCangage Leering (© Cengage Laing 2073FIGURE 12-3 Basic AC motor principle FIGURE 42-4 Sine wave excitation for SS i electromagnets Lit | aot tan} zip" [260° Degrees a Co rotor comes up to speed, rotating @ few than the stator field. Operating in this manner, the motor can drive a mechanical load. Pole 2 ye V Pate | "An induction motor becomes an induetion generator when driven by a prime mover suibaaa od turbine. | “The prime mover drives the rotor an the stator we "| rotating magnetic field; therefore, the roto field now ents viously mentioned) applied to wind turbines pro} duce three-phase power. As explained in Chapter 6, three-phase voltage consist of aa core raves 120 electrical degrees apart. Three-phase powers more efficient than Trae power because the three phases never goto zeroat the sam time, Whee le, as indicated in Figure 12-5. ¥ transformers ofa similar frame size, the three-phase rating is about 50% jgher than the single-phase rating. FIGURE 12-5 Three-phase A Ve Vb Ve cee 120°. SAN a | 0° Bs I LO fae NS ae 2 ee 496 Chapter 12. WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION Scengege ari . io the stator coils, inducing a voltage into the stator that 8 produces current to ‘load or to the grid from the stator. {Oo eisai grtosspy eee AG i ~~ AV ree | i Y ~_| THREE-PHASE AC i 7 Most AC generators (also called alternators, as pre-‘Three-phase motors run cooler than single-phase motors of the same horsepower, ‘Three-phase power is more efficient because it does not go to zero, + Stator and rotor coils can be smaller because for the same power the current i "reduced Jn Figure 125, single-phase power is zero at points 1,2, and 3. Observe that power never goes to zero on the three-phase waveforms because there is no time when all three phases are zero at the same time, THREE-PHASE GENERATORS I af used in wind turbines are basically of three types: + Squirrel cage induction generators + Wound rotor induction generators Synchronous (constant speed) generators All three have the same type of stator with field windings wound around an iron frame, ‘hree-phase AC excitation cur- rent applied to each st of stator cols. The stator excitation sets up a stator mag. netic field that moves from pole to pole and is called arotatlngraaprate Belt ‘The rotating field induces current into the rotor, producing a magnetic field around the rotor. When the generator is connected to the grid, then the stator receives excitation current from the grid and also supplies power to the grid. Figures 12.6 and 12-7 illustrate a three-phase stator and rotor and {he sator of an induction machine, respectively. The idea of a r g magnetic field is used to explain the Qperation of n induction motor and an induction generator, An induction generar tor is basically an induction motor driven by the wind (or other prime moves) that produces output power. FIGURE 12-6 Three-phase stator and rotor FIGURE 12-7 Stator of induction ——— — machine [— Phase2 Phase 1 Phases | Phase Leads 10 Stator Fiala (© Cengage Learning 2013, lated as Synchronous speed (RPM) = (120 X frequency of input excitation)/number of stator poles per phase or $= (120 x Aypoles per phase (Note: Every magnet has two poles, one N and one S. Therefore if there are two magnets per phase, then there are four poles per phase) Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 197EXAMPLE 12-4 = p0Hiz end poles per phase ~ 6 (3 magnets per Phesey each with 1 Nand 1S}. What is the synchronous speed? § ~ 120 x fipoles per phase = 120 X 60/6 = 1200 RPM EXAMPLE 42-2 {50 Hz and poles per phase = 6. What isthe synchronous speed? 5 = 120 x 60/6 = 1000 RPM EXAMPLE 12-3 tow many poles per phase are required for @ synchronous speed of 900 RPM at 60H2? oles per phase = 120 x 1S = 120 x 60/000 — 8 poles OF 4 magnets per phase orice tht synehronous RPM is determined by excitation [SST and the pane tion por phase. Under no [oad the motor SPeed be close to atau apecd, Butwhen loaded anaoperatnd me aT the rotor speeds acrcges than synchronous peed by en amount oiled slip. When an induction na ating ot synchronous speed, the torgueiezere, WT operating os 8 moon rotor iseriven above synchronous sPo8 Py the slip amount, difference be ¢ ‘1 ve gpeed. When an induction the atfreres ering above eynchronous epeed, iis cae) 0 ‘asynchronous machine Pn seyneonous ganerator fs operating 61 Fel synchronous aera, there 1s no output power. tors oP | synchronous THREE-PHASE ROTATING FGURE IES Fovaing meoretie els MAGNETIC FIELD phase 7 UN Thee-phase induction motors and three-phase induction generators jaa | each work on the principle of a rotting nagnetic field produced by | thestator three-phase and ingle phase induction motors are used By 20 aa, | commercial establishments etustry, and residential homes. Induc- | | tiongeneators ate a speci application of an induction moter. vA rotating magnetic feld is pro he stator because of lise « Three-phase voltage changes poarity wit respect f° cach phase at regular intervals, « "Three-phase voltage i 120 degrees out of phast and | + Stator il windings aqre wound around the pole pieces in a spe- |" iiesequence to ainsin the 120-degree phase relation. | Figures 12-8, 12-8, and 12-0 ilustrateass-pol (one N and one S pole =) pet phase) stator and the rotating magnetic field sequence. Phase 1 is Per Eitopoles 1A and 1B, phase2iswired topoles 24 ‘and 2B,and phase 3 © congaae 198 Chaptor 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONFIGURE 12-9 Rotating magnetic field FIGURE 12-10 Rotating magnetic field hase 2 phase 2 [ Lia | 2A 38 | é | 3A za |e 2 & Ss Tie iS H Hi is wired to poles 3A and 3B. Three-phase waveforms with phases LI, | ==> 12, and L3 and 120 degrees out of phase are illustrated in Figure 12-11, FIGURE 42. A rotating magnetic field sequence is explained as follows: To il. - 2 Iustrate movement of the magnetic field as it rotates around the sta. tor, the figures show the field strength, F, concentrating between field Poles. Vertical lines are drawn at points A, B, and C on the three sine ‘waves to indicate the magnitude of voltage at an instant in time. As cone phase increases in magnitude, F increases between the poles asso- lated with that phase and decreases in strength between other poles. At point A on the waveform, phase Ll is at maximum positive, and a strong magnetic field, Fl, is set up between poles Al and Bl, ‘with weaker fields between poles 2 and 3. At point B on the waveform, phase L2 is at maximum negative, and a strong field, F2, has rotated to between poles A2 and B2, with weaker fields between poles 1 and 3, At point C on the acta eee form, phase L3 is at maximum positive, and a stron, field, F3, has rotated to between poles A3 and B3, with weaker fields between poles | and 2 = 4 This should give the idea of how a rotating field is ‘generated, Asthe three phases rotate from A to BtoC, the strength of the magnetic field also rotates. When cach phase ofthe AC waveform has completed 360- degree rotation, the magnetic field will have also rotated ; su 360 degrees, and a strong magnetic field, F1, will again | u be produced between poles Al and A2. Figure 12-12 isa fhtee-phase stator with three-phase excitation current. [|_____ ASYNCHRONOUS INDUCTION GENERATOR « ‘When the fotor of an induction generator begii turn, maximam current is in- duced into the rotor by the wroducing a strong rot “netic field cutting Jag behind the tc r in the application Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 199 ‘© Cengage Lewring 2079as.a generator the rotor shafts driven by the mechanical action of he turbine blades. “The mechanical torque increases with only a small increase in the driven rotor RPM (see Figure 12-13, in relation to the torque-speed curve), and ‘the generator rotor texceeds the speed of the stator rotating field and induces current into the sta | t : stator. The | . pri 4 The mechanical energy, torque, | | applied to the generator rotor is converted to electrical energy and fed from the stator to the load. ae enchromous generator is driven about 2%~3% above synchronous spec! tO deliver maximum power output. (Note: In some applications, the induction geners- dey started as an induction motor and then connected to the drive source) SLIP Rotor speed below or above synchronous speed is called lp, Slip is the difference _ in speed between the rotor speed and the synchronous speed ‘produced by the stator - rotating field, or Slip = synchronous speed ~ rotor speed Ifthe synchronous speed is 1800 RPM and the rotor speed is 1746 RPM, then $= 1800 — 1746 = 54RPM and % slip is slip/synchronous speed 100, or 4 slip = 54/1800 X 100 = 39% If an asynchronous generator is turning at a negative slip of 396 and the synchro- nous speed is 1800 RPM, then the rotor is turning at 1800 + 54 = 1854 RPM. Slip Bove synchronous speed is called negative slip. EXAMPLE 12-4 'A GOHz, B-poles-perphase induction motor is applied as an asynchronous Generator at 3% slip. At what speed isthe rotor turning a8 @ generator? Synchronous speed: S = 120 fipoles per phase = 120 x 60/8 = 900 RPM 2. Slip: Slip = 900 x 0.03 = 27 RPM b. Asynchronous speed: Asynchronous speed = 900 + 27= 927 RPM La eve the Dre oe a eee machine i fing as an induction moter, tt 1 "stronger than the magnetic field induced into the rot by the interaction of stator field and the roter field causes the rotor shaft to "0 oy ne drives a mechanical load. The rotor ofan induction motor operates below synchronous speed and this difference is called slip, When an induction motor is operating ar anion oer ro one see “speed by t ve of the wind. As the rotor is driven above synchronous speed, it becomes harder to turn, increasing =r ncrncoatovaue nrese08™ “Stator current which supplies the electrical load. A “When speed eo synchronous speed, the machine operates as a motor 200 Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONnous speed (to the right of N), the machine operatesasan FIGURE asynchronous generator. Observe that as speed increases (blades turning faster), torque increases, and as speed decreases (blades turning slower), torque decreases. An important characteristic of an induction generator is that _ forque is Converted to electrical energy. This conversion sequence is as follows: — Range of possible Speed vation speed curve shows that torq. increase in speed, increases significantly with is can aso be interpreted to Tange of speed variation is. As wind speed increases, ro lysbut the increase in rotor speed is limited. as ‘And, atthe same time, the increasing torque increases power output. Observe that speed can also decrease while torque remains high, limiting decreased rotor speed as ‘wind speed decreases. This characteristic of an induction generator isimportant because a wind turbine cannot just. L— turn the wind off and on, ‘There isa point on the torque- ‘© Cangage Learing 2073 speed curve called pull-out or breakdown torque above —___ which torque decreases as speed increases. Speed mustbe FIGURE 42.44 Grid connection controlled under these conditions by slowing blade rota-_[- tion. Under these conditions, if power output cannot be 2 2 ee controlled, the turbine is taken off-line. Stator ‘When rotor speed drops below synchronous speed, e the asynchronous generator then becomes a motor and dD u ona | ‘must be removed from the grid, (There are exceptions mm MT a to this, as explained later in the discussion of double fed Bo : Rotor —*M3 M3 3 Lt, 12,13 tine) 5 n the syr ‘M1, M2, M3 (Magnetization) 3 th ynchron é peed freg 1 grid controls generator power output frequency and phase when connected, Figure 12-14 illustrates a grid con- nection. But ifthe grid becomes unavailable, the turbine must then be / taken off-line. An asynchronous generator can be operated stand-alone j if provided with magnetization current, usually supplied by capacitors FIGURE 12-15 Split phase field winding Many small induction motors operate on single-phase input power. coat ic field, the sta 7 q sw Run Start ‘To develop a rot ‘ tar cting like ‘two-phase. These are called split phase induction motors, and capaci tors illustrated in Figure 12-15, are often used to make the start current lead the run current. These motors are typically used for residential ‘or small commercial applications and seldom used as wind generators, | SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION ROTOR As previously mentioned, the stator isthe same for all induction generators, but the rotors differ with application. The squirrel cage rotor (Figures 12-16 and 12-17) got its name from the similarity to the exercise machine for pet squirrels, The rotor is TAC (© Gongage Leaving 2073, Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 204FIGURE 12-46 Basie squirrel cage rotor FIGURE 12-47 Squirrel cage rotor — apo Insulation Copper Bar __ Laminations of simple construction and consists of metal bars separated Py insulation and con orted to end rings. The metal bars are made from aluminum 0; coPPS® and there aes coils in the rotor. Squtzel cage rotors are used in most Light ‘medium duty XC motors, primarily because of simple construction and high reliability. Squirrel age rotor machines ae also used in asynchronous generator vine stator rotating magnetic field cuts the squirrel cage rotor Bars, inducing voltage and current in the bars and producing 2 roteivs magnetic Held, as previously explained (Figure 12-18) The ov fields FIGURE 42.48 Voltage induced into Be io each other and torques produced. The turbine blades tor by rotating magnetic field ar at ne sotor ata speed greater than the synchronous speed of the #___ stato, and the rotor field now cuts the scr Under these conditions, sat a duces voltage into the stator, increasing stator current ad supplying grid current. Stator magnetizing current is Nigh ‘when the ae builds up its magnetic fel, but current is reduced as the 7010 nes operational speed. Istator excitation current is sourced from the grid, then the generated voltage and frequency are in phase teith the grid. When a squirrel cage induction motor is operating “hove syehronous speed, itis called an asynchronous generator ig dhe rotor was free to turn, it would actually operate as a motor, ‘When this system is grid tied, the voltage and frequency are in syne with the grid, and additional power management equipment syne Mequired, Ina hybrid system application (in your home), the we me turbine feeds the grid when it is generating excess powes wet ihe grid feeds the Toad when demand is greater than the turbine can supply. Saquirrel cage machines operate eficiently at rated «peed and full toad bat undet lacked rotor conditions, when the rotor i stalled, cor- weirs ited only by the circuit resistance, and ifthe condition per- “Mats, heat builds up, destroying the insulation and the machine, TRUE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER ‘As explained in Chapter 7, true power is resistive power and 0) the power is = A cab then the power factor is equal to one. Reactive power i thet power used by aie aand capacitive loads when current and voltage ae out of phase, Nese yrower causes the power factor tobe less than one, and power compan must sup- ply reactive power although the watt-hour meter measures ‘only true power. Under ao re naitions, the users of reactive power pay a premium, or they must correct the power factor by adjusting the reactive power. 202 Chapter 12. WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONFIGURE 12.49 Wouna Rotor A | Induction generators supply both true and reactive power, and, if required, the reactive power is controlled by using a three-phase capacitor bank on the output. During starting, a squirrel cage machine draws high ‘magnetizing current. The rotor bars are highly induc- tive, and the generator’s power factor is ow. As the rotor comes up to speed, rotor current is limited by resistance rather than inductive reactance; therefore, current and voltage are more in phase, and the power factor is im- proved to a range of 8594-90%. WOUND ROTOR | INDUCTION MOTORS ‘The stator winding of the wound rotor induction motor isthe same as that of the squirrel cage motor. The rotor is different and is illustrated FIGURE 12-20 Rotor of wound rotor by the schematic in Figure 12-19. The squirrel cage rotor does not have duction coils, whereas a wound rotor (Figure 12-20) is constructed of field coils connected to slip rings and brushes; the external connection to the brushes can be resistors or an external source (Figure 12-21). The ex- ternal connection allows a certain amount of speed control. The stator rotating magnetic field induces voltage and current in the rotor coils, producing a rotating magnetic field. Ifthe rotor circuit is open or if the resistors have a high resistance, the rotor current decreases, the rotor field strength reduces, and the rotor will not turn, Torque is developed ‘when sufficient current produces a strong field that interacts with the stator field, causing rotor rotation, THREE-PHASE WOUND ‘The wound rotor is assembled with three coils wound 120 degrees apart, and the coils are connected to slip rings. Brushes ride on the slip rings and are connected to external resistors that are used to reduce excitation current when the rotating field first induces voltage into the _ | rotor when starting, As the rotor field strengthens, the stator field and rotor field interact, and torque is produced. As the rotor comes up to speed, magnetizing current in the rotor is reduced, and if used as a ‘motor, the rotor will rotate at less than synchronous speed. But ifused as a generator, the prime mover's torque and speed increase, and the rotor is driven to above synchronous speed (see the previous description of asynchronous induc- tion generators). The increased rotor torque is converted to electrical energy and fed from the stator to the load, Voltage and frequency are locked in phase with the grid. The wound rotor generator has some advantages over squirrel cage rotors Starting excitation current is lower because the resistors can vary the current and also allows for some rotor speed control, but these advantages should be weighed against the simple design of the squirrel cage rotor, which is highly reliable and requires little maintenance, When the external resistance is shorted out, a wound rotor motor has the same characteristics as a squirrel cage motor. This machine is an asynchronous generator because it generates power when operated above syn- chronous speed, INDUCTION GENERATOR [ “ FIGURE 42-24 Rotor connected to ROTOR ASYNCHRONOUS send sian rotor schematic ey ee \ er a jotor Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 203 aage Lean SanoFane TH oan einai DOUBLE FED Voltage Controller | IN D U CTI oO N Le | GENERATOR Figure 12-22 illustrates the operating ble fed induction generator (DFIG). i po principle of a dou- Variable ACis converted to DCand ompatible power, With this configuration, the electronic controllers are designed to grid ot feeding the grid. then back to AC supplying the grid with the rotor is independently controlled, an‘ operate in either direction, being fed by th Remember, ifrotorsp he DEIG hi age a ‘current is fed into the rotor at the same frequency as the rotor frequency, but 180 degrees out of ‘hase, and if that currentis greater than the rotor curtent then the rotor slows down Rhos ar tion ofthis induced frequency. For example ifthe current has a frequency of 2Hiz and the number of rote {i six, then the RPM is Note: The ‘and is different than the grid fre: rest, the stator magnetic field is cutting the sotor at close to synchronous speed, and the induced a frequency as a function of that speed ‘yoltage and current have (poles per phase X slip)/120 Frequency is Hz and slip is RPM. ‘This effectively reduces the synchronous speed by 40 RPM: therefore, even though the mechanical speed ofthe turbine has slowed, the slp requirements have aaa reduced, allowing the machine to still produce power tothe grid even 2 (Remember sli . Hexviore ‘A shepote-per-phase induction generator is operating ot 6OHz, and the rotor is turning at 1224 RPM. ‘sillustrated in Figure 12-22, the voltage controller modules can receive Powe? the rotor to th 204 Chapter 12. WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION‘The DFIG through its controllers can capture some of this energy by chat ing the sip requirements, and this power is sext tothe fr Athigh wind spats, the generator voltage and frequency increase, and this higher voltage is converted to DC by the controller and then converted back to grid-compatible AC voltage and frequency, supplying 10%- iditional power above the stator power. ‘There is ‘microprocessor pro- gram initiates or inerease in rotor current, which in turn controls slip, Totor frequency, and magnetic field strength. A squirrel cage induction generator operates at a maximum speed of about +3% above synchronous speed, whereas, a DEIG can operate at a maximum speed of about +8% above synchronous speed. It can also operate as a generator at speed below synchronous speed, By control. ling these parameters, t controlled. Keep in mind that resistance is fixed, but inductive reactance and impedance change with frequency, which can be controlled, DFIG WITH BLADE SPEED AND PITCH CONTROL As explained in Chapter 11, This formula was developed from as indicated in Figure 12-26. Ina HAWT blade, pitel zed by rotating the blade in its vertical plane which, changes the power coefficient EXAMPLE 12-5 Referring to Figure 12-23, find the tip speed and tip speed ratio where the shaft. FIGURE 42.23 speed is 60 RPM, wind speed is 14mph, and blade radius is 25ft. Example 12-5 Tip speed = 0.071 x distance from hub x shaft RPM = 0.701 x 25 x 60 = 106.5mph Tip speed ratio = tip speediwind speed = 106.5/14 = 7.6 Thotpspeed76umos sethantes, Figure 12-24 adds (© Cengoge Lawrna 2019 Figure 12-25 is - {ain type of turbine. Observe that the maximum power coefficient in Figure 12-25, (approx. 0.5, occurs when the tip speed ratio is (approx. 75, or when the blade tip Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 205FIGURE 12-25 Power coefficient, versus tip speed ratio ‘Speed and Pitch Controller | Power coofficient Maximum speed is75 times the wind sp refer Stator | inmlsormph). As © cengage Losing Figure 12-26 io rd blade FIGURE 12-26 Power coefficient id ratio at various blade 5. tanda ae eith the wind blowing directly inte 1 blades, an js when the blades have been panel ch that the wind is striking the A nee page ofthe Blades and very tle wind energy is captured. The g ther curves are pitch angles between curves 1 and 6. Tv Power coefficient sitions; for example, an offshore desi Speeds 1000 feet above sealevel Forms or TOO eficent (which it isnt, the outPY ran $99 ofthe ideal available wind o congage Los “therefore, if the generat power ofthe turbine iso greater energy. (Remember that the a bbe co tional output power. THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS ! GENERATOR eee ‘Both squirrel cage and wound rotor induction generators operate above FIGURE 12-27 Throe-phose synchronous peed. A synchronous generator (Figwe 12-27) is run at synchronous generstor synchronous speed, which means i rust bbe driven by a prime mover Fy constant RPM. Stator excitation is not required, but rotor excita- smn produced by electromagnet (oF Permanet ‘magnets). The stator tions and output power is taken from the Sa DC rotor excita- ‘| tion can come from an external sOUrCE ‘using slip ringsand ‘brushes, but ‘| tin ommonly there is a DC generator Bult ne he rotor that does 4 rat requite sip rings and brushes, therefore reducing maintenance. DC ge connected to electromagnets produces a constant magnetic field, andas 3 eroiving | the rote tarns sorptor magnetic ld cuts the stator coils, inducing — Noltage and current into the stator. When the rotor reaches synichro~ wus apeed, the DC excitation locks the rotor synchronous speed: 206 Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONSynchronous generators are commonly used at large Zos> 356 utility generating plants that have prime movers pow. TIGURE 12-28 Voltaglandrequency vary ith, speed ered by steam or water. These prime movers run at a Misihepe constant RPM. ‘Therein lies the problem with wind as the y prime mover it blows at a variable speed. When the ro- tor is turned by the prime mover, a sine wave voltage is Rectier Inverter induced into the stator, but as rotor speed varies, both ‘ a voltage and frequency vary sillustrated in Figure 12-28 cal ee Synchronous generators are used in certain applications |) ‘teen where variable voltage and frequency are not a primary | 284 AC rom Generator @ ac concern, but are not used in grid-tied applications unless rer rectifiers and power conditioning inverters are also used, In recent years, powerful permanent magnets have been developed, and in some applications, permanent magnet rotors have replaced electromagnets. Man- uufacturers have developed some smaller wind turbines (usually less than 20kW) using permanent magnets, and the generator is directly coupled to the wind turbine shaft. The generator output varies in both frequency and magnitude, as illustrated in Figure 12-28. The AC output is rectified and then fed to an inverter, changing the DC toa high-quality sine wave, and supplied to the grid. MORE ON INDUCTION MOTORS AND GENERATORS ‘The three-phase induction generators that have been explained are basically three- Phase motors, and understanding motorsleads toa better understanding of motors that ms isa ieee eld. Mag- etizing current is supplied to the stator from an external source, usually the grid. (his is different for a synchronous motor/generator, as was explained previously) ‘The-ratorsare of twougenGtal| typessisquirrel:cage and:wound’rotas. When an induction motor is energized, current flowing to the stator produces a rotating ‘magnetic field that induces voltage and current into the rotor, producing a rotating magnetic field; torque is produced between the two fields, and the rotor starts to turn. The rotor always runs slower than the speed of the rotating stator field, which is the synchronous speed; this difference is called slip. Motors have positive slip (less than synchronous speed), and asynchronous generators have negative slip (the rime mover drives the rotor above synchronous speed), Slip has an effect on the operating characteristics of induction motors/generators. When the machine is stalled (rotor not turning), then slip is 100%. When the motor comes up to speed, but at no load, slip is usually less than 2%; at full load, the slip increases, but is typically less than 5% (these values are for squirrel cage machines). Rotor characteristics of a wound rotor machine are similar to those of a squirrel cage rotor when the external resistors are shorted. in the rotor and is summarized as follows: a. Rotor voltage is directly proportional to slips when slip goes up, the induced voltage goes up. b. Frequency of induced voltage is directly proportional to slip; when slip goes up, the frequency of the induced voltage goes up. ¢: Inductive reactance of the rotor is directly proportional to slip; when slip goes up, XL goes up (XL = 2nfL), 4. Rotor current is maximum at 100% slip, and as slip decreases, rotor current ‘goes down. At no Toad, slip is low and rotor current is low. As load is in- ‘creased, slip increases and rotor current increases. Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 207«e-‘The rotor power factor increases as slip decreases. The power factor can ¥a°y eeween 0 and 1. When the power factor is 1, the load is purely resistive, and eerie, the load is a purely reactive. At 100% sip (rotor RPM = 0), the votor power factor is O.1-0.2 (rotor is very inductive) As slip goes down (rotor TRIM pncreasing), the power factor increases (0.8). Between no load and full food: slip is typically less than 5%, and the rotor power factor typically varies from 09 to 095, The highest power factor occurs at full-load operation. Keep in mind that these are estimates and are used to show en non DENS ‘As explained previously in this chapter, a double fed induction generator trols the rotor power factor, by injecting current into the rotor, Which affects slip controls the power factor ‘The stator power factor is basically a functiomof stator reste eigaDeS. —sadimerieguenseand isons ‘when operating at full load. At full load, the Dower factor is typically in the range of 08-085. GENERATOR FREQUENCY Generator output frequency is determined by.twofactorss the speed. of the rolOp ., as shown by the equation £ = > poles per" Mtthe member of poles is fixed when the machine is assembled; therefore, EXAMPLE 12-6 Find the output frequency of an AC induction generator that contains four poles per phase and is turning at 1800 RPM (see Figure 12-29). {= RPM x poles per phase/120 1200 x 4/120 = 6OHz FIGURE 12-29 Chart of rotating speed for 60Hz and S0H2 cor, com, ‘| Poles per Poles per | | RPM | Phase Phase | 3000 2 3000 2 ae Le ote GENERATOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND CURRENT “Output voltage is determined by three factors: (Q);number of turns in the stator or rotor coils, 2) speed of the rotor rotation; and (3) strength of the magnetic field. The ‘Rimber of turns in the stator or rotor can be changed at the time of construction, but is fixed after the machine is built, Ifthe rotor speed is changed, then frequency riiso changed. A common way to change voltage without changing frequency 's 208 Chapter 12. WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONFIGURE 12-30 increasingivottagebyichangingthe FIGURE 42-34 anoreasing current by changing the. field turns number of branches 1, ey ‘orconteolvexcitatiom current, which changes the miigneticvieldstrengthiand the spoltage: Figures 12-30 and 12-31 illustrate how to change voltage and current by changing field windings MECHANICAL POWER In Chapter 11, the id iturbinewas calculated ag B=YSBAVALAt sea level and a temy Power in watts is Pwatts = 0.6125AV? where V is m/sand A ism. This expression can be written as Pwatts = 0.6125AV? x 0.59, which is the maximum power when the Betz limit is applied, To further explain power transfer to watts, shafi torque and speed can be con- verted to watts. This transformation is Pwatts = 0.142 x RPM X torque where torque is fe-lb. In the metric system, Pwatts = 0.105 X RPM X torque where torque is N-m (Newton-meter) (Nofe: Radians are a typical measurement for speed when torque is N-m, and 0.105 radians per second is 1 RPM, In practice, RPM is an easier shaft measurement.) EXAMPLE 12-7 A shaft is driving a generator, and the shaft is rotating at 900 RPM at a constant torque of 1Sft-Ib. How much power (watts) is the shaft producing? (Speed and torque are measured at the generator shaft.) Pwatts = 0.142 x RPM x torque = 0.412 x 900 x 15 = 1917 watts = 1.917kW Ifthe generator is 100% efficient, then it should produce 1.917kW of power. EFFICIENCY Efficiency ofa system is the ‘aio Of eNO divided by powetsingor eficiency = Paa/P.x Each part ofa system has efficiency, andthe total eficiency isthe product of cach Part, expressed as total efficiency = efficiency 1 X efficiency 2 X efficiency 3 (also see Chapter 11)... EXAMPLE 12-8 ‘Awind turbine has been tested, and the efficiency of power transfer is illustrated in Figure 12-32, Find the system efficiency. ev TH —t— bk} wv @ 1a Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 208FIGURE 12-32 Example 12:8 =| ee Fremromer = tom, 12 feloos {scene freome Powe F | z | oon Maa oe oe a Note: Efficiency as indicated in Figure 12-3218 the electro > No: a pete copretioony | =z sits “The eystom efficiency is (0.95 X 0.95 x 0,96 x 0.98) « 100 5 0 £88 x 100 = 88%. eee ne om te wind 6AM, et sft owtut DONT TkW 20.88 = 12.260. PARALLELING GENERATORS Generators are connected in parallel (Figure 12-33) to supply moe peaertent, When connected in parallel, electrical condinons mt at toad cor sined between the AC generators and the ged and loads. Fol- FIGURE 42-33 Parallel generctors = | ea a lowing are 1. Output voltages of both machines must be the same 2, Phases of both machines must be in sequence. re phaseL1 ofeach machine must be maximum positive and - ‘negative at the same time. InPhase Waveforms b, Phase 12 of each machine must be maximum positive and negative at the same time. oe «Phase 13 ofeach machine must be maximurn positive and \ I negative at the same time. “ 7 ty ee 3, Frequencies of both machines must be ‘the same. | i These requirements al baal _| WIND SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS ‘wind turbine AC generators are considered to operate either 0 YaP ae’ e Speed or near fixed speed. Variable speed machines 4% the r0- ree wind speeds when the wind speed increases, the rotor turns + re eynd when the wind speed decreases, the rotor turns lowes _ MaxirumTorqus ‘Fixed speed (not constant speed) machines pse controllers to keep the ctor barning at or near fixed speed. Squirrel cage machines have ' tnecdency to control their own speed. One of the important char- | | ere of asynchronous induction generators that they operate re acre fixed RPM as wind speed increases (reference the tordue: ipeeeen speed curve in Figure 12-34. 4: . — “The asynchronous generator controls its speed over a wide range ¢Srator Rotor Speed (RPM) of dhaft torque with only a small change in rotor RPM. ‘This reals ol__— PM) | that wind speed variations have only a small effect on rotor speed FiGuRE 12-34/ioral speed curve Torque fH) 240 Chapter 12. WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONFIGURE 12-35 Fixed speed ‘until wind cut ilustrtesthisnarrow range a rtorapeed overs rather = forque Is a Key parameter for eM porcine ae maximum torque is exceeded, the rotor breaks away Gearbox -—]_ {nduction from the magnetic field, and torque quickly reduces as senerator rotor speed is no longer controllable and output power is not reliable, Figures 12-35 through 12-37 illustrate three system |9=———_— configuration gure 1.35 wih ogi cage tee FIGURE 2236 Varetiapood ‘operates over a narrow fixed speed range (not constant [— speed). Production is basically over the cut-in and cut- out range determined by measuring wind speed. It can be connected to the grid withou . some aplication’ ean edo igtt@82-36 isa DFIG and operates using a control loop that can control rotor current and slip; it operates over a wide variable wind speed range. The DFIG op- timizes power output by capturing high and low wind speeds and utilizes rotor power to increase stator output _ power. Itcan be connected without power conditioning FIGURE 42.37 Variable speed but requires back-to-back voltage converters. Produc. -—— tion is over a rather wide range within cut-in and cut- oe ut requirements, In Figur 12:@70K8 generator is directly coupled and ‘operates over a variable wind speed range, but the out- put requires voltage rectification and DC-to-AC invert. ers to supply the required AC sine wave. Production is over the cut-in and cut-out range. the in or cut-out speed occurs. Figure 12-34 Grid | L [variable | Ac [Recier SS ca spec . \ EXAMPLE 12-9 a if A three-phase induction motor is applied as an | 0 ° asynchronous induction generator in Figure 12-38 and | will supply reactive (capacitive) excitation current from - 2 capacitor bank at 0.85 power factor. The capacitor | Bed ac Gooa Ac bank is connected delta. The generator will operate stand-alone and supply a three-phase load, engage Leaning 2078 FIGURE 12-38 Example 12.9 Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 244—— The motor’ specification is three-phase 440V 3f 60H. Fullload current is 6.34 (motor excitation current) Full-toad slip is 3%. rhe motor's synchronous speed fs 1800 APM Thad the capacitor values forthe 0.95 power ecto" (PF) and the prime mover speed. Power apparent = Py, = = 1.73 x 6.3 x 440 = 4796VA Power true = Prac “a Figl = ATO — ATF = 2528008 b. . Power reactive = Pus = 4, Power reactive per phase = 2626/3 = B42VAR t |, = proactiverphase V ~ 842/440 = 1 914 per phase Ei = agort.gt ~ 230.30 per phase (dette phase voltage = line voltage = 4a0V) gC = UlaMX,) = ME2 x 8.24 % 60% 250 3) = 11.51F (per phase) h. Slip = 1800 x 0.03 = 54RPM * equired prime mover speed = 1800 * SUP ~ 1900 + 54= 1854 RPM ‘This moter, when driven by @ prime move! and connected to the load, will generate its own excitation current. THREE-PHASE AC VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER CALCULATIONS 0 far in this chapter, three-phase induction generators and ens toon explained. This next section explasne Bd presents examples of calculating Thee: phase connections are configured 25 W° (WY) or delta (A). Figure 12-39 is awye connection. The voltage on ge across a winding is called phase voto and the voltage measured between two lines is called Line voltage (E,,,J- Current measured through cars called phase current (l,.) and Curent net 2 col through the line is called line curren’ . igure 12-40 is a delta connection, and as in the vwye connection, the voltage measured 26°01 phase We fed phase voltage (Ep) and the voltae Cor i fed between two lines is Tine voltage @,,). Cu set oeryred through a coi s phase current ( ad rent Tuerent measured through the Tine ising cubrent (7). Observe, in each configuration, that three line (Viages and three phase voltages are measured and wotagrsee tine currents and three phase currents A measured aa et. aye configuration in Figure 12-39, (he line voltage is calculated as By, = 1732 Ee and E, 732 212 Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONFor the wye\configaratioy, equal current flows through the line and FIGURE 12-40 Theo, the pr: connection . Te = sie [tines al For thedeliaconfiguration in Figure 12-40, the line ‘voltage and phase | voltage are equal, or Fine = Ease Avoltiieter eonnected between two input lines in the deltas the same as being connected across a phase. For the delta:configuration, line , current splits between two phases and , “= 1732 I, phase delta and = Hy /1.732 Tan THREE-PHASE POWER Ina three. hase system, if line Voltage and line current are known, then apparent VA = 1.732 X By. ny And ifiphiaSe Wollage and phase current are known, then apparent power is VA=3x EXT. tie owerrats)is calculated as Watts = 1.732 X By, X Tyg, X PF or Watts =3 XB x1, % PE Reactive power (VAR) is calculated as VAR = 1.732 X Basse X Innenaane ‘Reactive power isthe result of inductors or eapacitorsin the circuit EXAMPLE 12-10 As an example, Figure 12-41 is a three-phase wye generator connected to a three-phase delta load. The generator is supplying E, 240VAC, and {he delta load is resistive 120 por phase. Find Ein wae Exser sur Ince ney ‘heiot ncegraralinegeerter @PPAFENt Power, true power, and reactive power. FIGURE 12-44 Example 12-10 Ennion Ey = 240V (the generator line voltage is across Generator Losd tnatons ™ Ein goer me the load phase) aes. Eosmette = Einetng = 240V Pas Da ©: nue tons ~ Enausond A, = 240/12 = 20A (204 is through each delta phase) 9. Nnwias * 1.732 % Vocenons (each line is 34,644) lnetess = 94.644 lone genmter = 34.644 (each phase is 34.644) 9: Py, = 1.782 X Ey, X lagg 1.732 X 240 X 34.64 = 14,399VA = 1.782 X Ippgge = 1.732 X 20 = 34.648 Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 2431. Pagye~ Pun * PFF the PF = 1 bocause the load is resistive: 4,999 x 1 = 14,399 O because the load power is all true power Prenat iP, Comments 1 Ifthe load isa wye connection, then wye calculations af¢ used for phase and line voltage and carrent. 2. A generator is typically feeding multiple parallel loads, and the generator A Beata current to al the loads. The generator line current = then the sum Uf the Load currents (eae = Fat t+ ba? * 4 Loads can also be reactive inductive and capacitive) Reactive current is then aided as explained in previous chapters. 4. The value 1.732 is used in three-phase calculations Pecan voltages and cur- rae et 130 degrees out of phase and are combined using Veco" Qerriore ——_— ‘Awye-connocted generator supplies two loads connected in parallel. Load 1 1s “ig 4B0VAC. Load 1 is resistive end R= 100 delta and load 2 18 WE. Erg gen per phase. Load 2 is resistive and R = 120 PSF phase. Draw the diagram for this gonfiguration and find E,,, for load 1 and load 2, E, jefor toad 1 and load 2, hae fF 10d 1 ard 10d 2 lina gnmmer Pon watts Poa VAI and Pyaq (VAR): BALANCED AND UNBALANCED LOADS “The load in Figure 12-41 is called a balanced) loatioecause each phase/has the same “a common practice fs 10 Use ® ‘three-phase generator to drive a Yaree-phase transformer, with the transforey supplying both three-phase and Single-phase Toads; in tis case the loads wil be unbalanced. Sigure 12-42 illustrates a three-phase genetat0r “driving a three-phase trans- ona ith the transformer supplying both three phase ‘and single-phase loads. formes former isan open delta connection. Note that one ‘phase of the secondary er tapped (CT) and that either sie of the center P Supplies a single-phase Ihad Ifthe reader of this book will be connecting ‘three-phase transformers, it may von Meal to do further study of three-wire and four-wire s7T TE and to review ve ete 450 ofthe National Electrical Code and growing practices. aie detraples explained have involved rather small volages ‘and power, but the concepts ate also applied to larger power systems POWER TRANSMISSION igure 2-42) is ane PAH saNIONS transmission, Acray is usually transmitted within a grid with ise AC power. Figure 12-44 pyr ames hatincrestesthe vols 244 Chapter 12. WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATIONFIGURE 12-42 Unbalanced load Gonerator 3-Phase Transformer 3-Phase Losd a | ut ‘Phase Load : FIGURE 12-43 Power grid Power _ Step-Up Step Down | Staion Traneformer Trenstomer a ry fo Turbines = 4 3 ef Network ! SE conteiter| fo! 3 Turbines ' {} a | Power ‘Step-Up C ‘Step-Down Steen Translormer Trrtaormer Transmission tines eae: keeping the power transmission nearly equal yl former input and output. High-voltage DC (HVDC) transmis- sion is used in some long-distance lines for greater efficiency. At large me peo ante Seager eee FIGURE 42-44 Power transformer be fi ¥, with some lighter-loaded transmission ee usi tages of Saban below are Considered to be dist ations (Figure 12-45) ‘ A key factor in power transmission is the requirement for generat- ing power as needed; electrical energy, with a few exceptions bbejstored"The grid goes to great expense and implements cont design innovations to control supply and demand so as to keep the = transmission lines have considerable xesisiige, and it has been estimated that estergy:lostiin-tesistancereverages around: 7%%"of the transmitted power. Higher transmission voltages reduce current 8 Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 245ao me and therefore line losses, For example, aising voltage by.a factor of, FIGURE 12-45 Distribution substation areata: the current by a factor of 2, sista th - he ‘bat line losses are reduced by a factor of 4 (power loss = FF XR). GRID CONNECTION ‘Many turbines connect to-the-grid through 2 transformer, as in Figure 13-46. The transformer: sslgolates generator start-up from the grid, reducing grid voltage drop due to in-rush current from the generator and «Raises generator yoltageto distribution levels. Guam, WIND FARM ow | 8 js amsinterconnection of turbines: Typical 1 | utility three phase AC genera have - ‘volt Eanes a ‘age greater fot a substation, this voltage is [ee [elem ssw | stepped up ena eP on ine voltages andis used ina | Generator | | local system or connected to the power grid. Wind tur- | | bines must meet criteria for frequency stability, | and power factorsas previously discussed, if the system aaecrected to the grid. Utiitysize turbines range in sizes greater than 4MW. As of the writing of this book a ‘wind farm,with capacity Sfmare than SOOMW isplanned in the United States. tis estimated to, supply more) than 2 billfon kWh per year ‘Powerutilitigs are-alko building distribution “ystems that consist of Say ‘A hybrid system (Figure 12-47) is assembled from a combination of Renewable en- ergy sources and can be interactive with the grid FIGURE A 42-47 Ayo Mo ae i oye | ee ees | ea ary | Y _| Local ‘Wind Turbine | \acinc Generator) E Residential and small commercial power systems are classified as “small scale” and “medium scale.” i smanufacturer-rated in the power range"@E3KW'tD™ ‘What may be-consideredsmediamsealeswind:turbines are manufacturer-rated in the power range of 100KW tor 1500KW. 246 Chapter 12. WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION| i | TURBINE POWER RATINGS When studying, designing, or buying a wind-powered system, the KWFRWttar ‘ngoftheigenerator only tells part ofthe story! The electric generator cannot sup Ply any more electrical energy than what is captured by the mechanical parts of the system. Ifthe generator is rated at 100kW, but mechanical power input to the generator is only 75KW, then that is the power limit. On the other hand, ifthe me, chanical input is 100KW and the generator is inefficient at producing energy, then the electrical output will be less then 100kW. A wind:-turbine system ‘iiust have cach part working efficiently to yield maximum powes, And this is the case with any renewable energy system regardless of the input enefgy source. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Induction motors and generators work on what principle? 2. Explain the primary difference in operation between an asynchronous induc- tion generator and a synchronous generator as applied to wind turbines. 3. Foran induction generator, as wind speed increases, there isan increase in generator rotor torque. Is rotor torque directly proportional to wind speed? Explain your answer, 4. Explain the power relationship between swept area and wind speed. Which has the greatest effect? Explain the Betz limit, As the tip speed ratio increases, what isthe effect on power? ‘Why does the power coefficient (C,) decrease as the tip speed ratio exceeds the maximum power rating? 8. Find the synchronous speed of an induction motor with two electromagnets per phase and a frequency of 60Hz. 9 Ifthe motor of Problem 8 is applied as an asynchronous induction generator, ‘operating at 4% slip, what is the rotor speed (RPM)? 10. The generator shaft of an induction generator is turning at 1248 RPM, and shaft torque is 15fe-b, The generator is 98% efficient. What is the KW output power? 11. The turbine system in Figure 12-48 has the following specifications Swept area: 1962 square feet — a Cutin speed: Smph « FIGURE 42-48 Problems 11 and 12 : Ee p= 0.0765Ib/颰 | Rated wind speed: 20mph cia acl Sal sin [| Generator | Transtormer|—> Pou Sc | fh | [cower [ranma] = at 20mph at the efficiency of Figure 12-48, eaters Note: Efficiency from the blades to the gearbox is power lee capture and mechanical efficiency. Chapter 12 WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION 2471p: For Problem 11 plot the power curve: Refer to Figure 1°88 for FIGURE 12-49 Problem / a typical power curve. Plot your curve using 2 mph wind speed seach | | aaeivents, Apply the formula P = ¥pAV"G, (C, = system fi Sean creed | / increment and cut pers rated poet and maxi | pas out | ere) er, Assume maximum power at28mphs power 9s" | Power i mum Poworatantunti cu-out, At cut-out, power then reduces toward 220 | cutin ‘Speed 13. A wye generator (Figure 12-50) supplies two delta connected | A nve Bigenerator,,, i 480VAC, Load. is resistive at 10% | i per phase, and load 2 is resistive at 60 per phase Findl,,for | | : Pert T and load 2 I, for the generator the power factor ‘otal Pwrattstotal apparent power, and total reactive power | |i wineTutine Power Output je FIGURE 42-50 Probiem 1 [conearor test 218 Chapter 12. WIND TURBINES & POWER GENERATION |