4 Lift/Drag

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
4.1 Lift/Drag Ratio

4.1.1 Review of C L /  and C D /  Curves

An aircraft designer does not only have to make sure that enough lift is produced
by the wings but also at a reasonable amount of thrust, i.e. without simultaneously
producing too much drag. Up until now we have been dealing with lift and drag
separately. In order to determine the performance and efciency of an airfoil at a
particular angle of attack (and airspeed), lift and drag must be considered together.

You remember that the lift curve shows a steady increase in the coefcient of lift with
an increase in the angle of attack, up to the stall angle of attack. Beyond the stall angle
of attack, the coefcient of lift decreases rapidly due to the stall of the airfoil. The
coefcient of drag versus angle of attack curve shows that CD increases steadily all the
way as the angle of attack increases. Fig. PF 4.1.

CL CD

AoA AoA

stall
stall

Fig. PF 4.1 Lift and drag versus AoA

We can see that C D has its minimum value at small angles of attack. As the stall angle is
approached, the drag increases at a progressively higher rate due to separated ow.

CD has its minimum value at small angles of attack. With an increase in

the AoA, drag increases at a progressively higher rate.

In order to evaluate the wing efciency we must consider more than just the lift
produced. In fact, a wing has its greatest lifting ability just prior to the stalling angle of
attack. Unfortunately, near the stalling angle, the wing also generates considerable drag.

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 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

A wing has its greatest lifting ability (C L max) at the stall AoA but also
very high induced drag.

The minimum drag occurs at a fairly low angle of attack, in this case slightly above
zero degrees AoA. Unfortunately, the lifting ability is very low at low angles of attack as
shown in g. PF 4.1.

At each angle of attack, the lift/drag ratio is the ratio between lift and drag or between
the coefcient of lift and the coefcient of drag. It expresses the aircraft efciency.

4.1.2 Polar and Lift/Drag Ratio Curves

We can draw a curve that shows the variation of the C D as a function of the CL . In other
words, for a given aircraft it shows how much drag is produced for a given lift at every
angle of attack. This curve is called the polar curve. Fig. PF 4.2.

Polar curve.
C o
L 16 o
o 18 o
14 20
1.6 o
o 12 AoA
C L at 14
o
10
1.2 o
8
C L at 8 o
o
0.8 6
o
4
0.4
o
2
0.0 CD
0.05 0.15 0.25
o o
C D at 8
C D at 14

Fig. PF 4.2 Lift and drag coefficients at different angles of attack, Polar curve

The polar curve shows the variation in C D as a function of CL .

Each point of the polar curve is obtained for a given angle of attack and shows the
corresponding values of the coefcients of lift and drag.

For each angle of attack we can calculate the lift/drag ratio by dividing C L by CD (or lift
by drag). In this way we can draw a curve representing the variation of the L/D ratio as
a function of the angle of attack. Fig. PF 4.3.

4-2 Lift/Drag

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 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
C Polar curve L/D L/D ratio = C L / C D
L to AoA
o
16
stall
1.6 14
12
1.2
10o 10
8
0.8
6o 6

stall
0.4 4
o 2
2
0.0 CD AoA
0.05 0.15 0.25 -4 0 4 8 12 16
0.10 0.20 0.30

Fig. PF 4.3 Polar curve and L/D to AoA curve

4.1.3 Best Lift/Drag Ratio

For a light aircraft with a normally cambered wing we can see that, when the angle of
attack is increased, the L/D ratio rapidly increases from zero to the maximum value.
Then, as the angle of attack is increased further, the L/D ratio decreases until the
stalling angle is reached and keeps decreasing even beyond that angle. The reason
for this behaviour is that when the angle of attack is increased until the lift/drag ratio
reaches its maximum value, both CL and CD increase but C L increases more than C D.

When the angle of attack is increased beyond the maximum lift/drag

ratio, C D increases more than CL .

A straight line inclined at a given angle, J, from the axis origin on C L - C D

plane, represents the LIFT/DRAG RATIO.

The smaller the angle between C L axis and the straight line, the greater the lift/drag
ratio. If we draw another straight line from origin of coordinates through point C and D
we nd the ratio between C L and the CD to be equal to 10. Fig. PF 4.4.

We can say that each straight line drawn from the axis origin represents a given lift/
drag ratio. This lift/drag ratio is proportional to the straight line inclination which is
measured by the angle J.

The smaller the angle J, the greater the lift/drag ratio.

We have said that each point on the polar curve represents a given angle of attack.
Thus, to create a certain lift at a low AoA, the speed needs to be high causing very high

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 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

C
L
1.6
D C L at D = 1,20
1.2 o = 10
A10
C D at D = 0,12
G
0.8
C C L at C = 0,35
0.4 = 10
A3 o C D at C = 0,035

0.0 CD
0.05 0.15 0.25
0.10 0.20 0.30

Fig. PF 4.4 AoA that gives CL /CD equal to 10

zero lift drag D 0 , and at a high AoA the speed is low causing very high induced drag Di.
The same is true for an AoA of 3 o and 10 o respectively. Fig. PF 4.4.

The same lift over drag relations exists at low speed as well as high speed.

In order to nd the AoA for the best CL/CD on the polar curve, we must
draw the tangent to the curve starting from the axis origin. We can see
that the best lift/drag ratio in this example is at 5 o AoA which is equal to
a lift/drag ratio of 13. Fig. PF 4.5.

C
L
1.6
G
1.2
C
L at E = 0,60 = 13
0.8 E
o C D at E = 0,046
A5
0.4

0.0 CD
0.05 0.15 0.25
0.10 0.20 0.30

Fig. PF 4.5 AoA that gives the highest CL /CD equal to 13

The line which is the tangent to the polar curve represents the best
lift/drag ratio.

In this example the best lift/drag ratio is 13, that is; the lift is 13 x the drag. The best lift/
drag ratio for normal light aircraft is typically between 15 and 20 depending on several
factors concerning the wings. In general, the optimum angle of attack is about 4

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 In the case of gliders, the L/D can reach values of 30 to 60, thus the drag is so low that

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
you should be able to pull it in the air with only one hand, despite its mass of 400 to
500 kg, including the pilot! Fig. PF 4.6.

00 kg! L/D = CL/CD = 50

ble to lift 5
I am a

(500 kg)
5000 N

CD 500 x 9.81
D= W (n=1) = 98.1 N
CL 50

Fig. PF 4.6 L/D of glider

A normal light aeroplane creates a lift 15 to 20 times higher than the drag
simultaneously produced. A glider with L/D of >30 can be pulled in the
air by use of one hand only!

The angle of attack at which we obtain the best lift/drag ratio is called the Most
Efficient Angle of Attack. For a normal light aircraft the value is approximately a 4-5o.
Fig. PF 4.7.

C Polar curve L/D L/D ratio = C L / C D

L
to AoA

1.6 14
12
1.2
10
8
0.8
o 6
A5
0.4 4
2
0.0 CD AoA
0.05 0.15 0.25 -4 0 4 8 12 16
0.10 0.20 0.30 A for highest L/D

Fig. PF 4.7 Example of AoA that gives the highest L/D

The angle of attack at which we obtain the best lift/drag ratio is called
the MOST EFFICIENT ANGLE OF ATTACK.

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 4.2 Factors Affecting the Lift/Drag Ratio
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

All items that affect the aeroplanes drag, affect CD /CL ratio as well. Increasing drag at a
given CL increases the CD /CL ratio, thus decreases C L /CD ratio. These items are:
Wing section. The wing section with the lowest drag yields the best CL /CD ratio.
Use of aps. Deployment of high lift devices will in most cases increase the
drag. Only when being near or at speeds for stall for a clean wing can the use
of aps reduce drag somewhat. But during all other ight conditions, high lift
devices reduce the lift/drag ratio. Fig. PF 4.8.

Drag
Landing flaps
(Newton) Take-off flaps
200 Max thrust Zero flap

150
V stall
zero flap Airspeed

Fig. PF 4.8 Increased drag with flaps

Gear down .Selecting the gear down decreases the CL /CD ratio.
Aspect ratio. Because a high aspect ratio reduces the induced drag, the CL /CD
ratio at a certain CL is high when the aspect ratio is high.
Aeroplane mass. At the same speed, the CL /CD ratio is higher when the mass
is higher. However, at a higher speed, when the CL value is equal to the CL at
the lower mass, the CL /CD ratios are also equal.
Wing planform. The wing planform with the lowest induced drag yields the best
CL /CD ratio.
Aeroplane speed (AoA). The speed with the minimum drag yields the best
CL /CD ratio.

4.3 Ground Effect

4.3.1 Airow Within Ground Effect

When the aircraft is ying near the ground it changes behaviour because the
presence of the ground modies the airow around the wing. We will now see what
the so-called ground effect does to the aircraft.

Out of ground effect, the required lift is provided by means of an angle of attack that
supplies the wing with a given coefcient of lift. Close to a lifting surface in free air we

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 always have a certain upwash in front of the airfoil and a certain downwash behind

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
it. Due to the wing tip vortices, the wing experiences a local mean airflow which
is inclined downwards and the total aerodynamic force is inclined slightly further
backwards. This increases the induced drag by a given amount. Fig. PF 4.9.

Decrease in lift i = Downwash angle due to tip vortices

due to downwash
from tip vortex Total Aerodynamic Force
including Local lift vector

ash Do D i
Upw

Fig. PF 4.9 Out of ground effect

When creating lift, the downwash of the tip vortices is the direct cause for
the creation of induced drag.

4.3.2 Effect on Lift and Drag

As we have seen, without the presence of the ground the tip vortices modify the
flow around an aeroplane wing. The local angle of attack of a certain wing section is
reduced by an induced angle attack, causing a reduced lift force and inducing an extra
contribution to the drag force, called induced drag.

Lift increase Less

due to steeper Less downwash angle
upwash due to tip vortices

Higher parasite drag,

Same lower induced drag
AoA
as out
of per
ground Stee ash
up w Do Di
effect Less
downwash

GROUND

Fig. PF 4.10 At same AoA in ground effect

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