M. ES.

ABDELMONEIM Tool Edge Roundness and Stable Build-Up

R. F. SCRUTTON
Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of
formation in finish Machining
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada The results of cutting force measurements when machining materials which do not form
a sizable unstable built-up-edge are compared with the results of a theoretical analysis.
This analysis, based partly on the use of circular cylindrical surfaces of velocity dis-
continuity around the. base of the tool, yields specific energy values which are uniquely
determined by the value of the imdeformed chip thickness in relation to the tool edge
radius.

Introduction While some materials such as free-cutting brass or zinc may

L I HE mechanics pf finish machining has long remained
a mystery due to the experimental difficulties involved in making
precise physical measurements on such a small scale. Higher
speeds and smaller depths of cut require more elaborate quick-
stop mechanisms. In an attempt to overcome these problems,
at least in part, a study of the mechanics of cutting using simu-
lated model experiments would seem to offer some advantages.
Although intuitively unattractive, slow speed model tests would
seem to afford a necessary preliminary in any systematic investi-
gation. In this way the uncertainties associated with edge
sharpness and build-up formation may be clarified.
The complexity of the action of a rounded edge has been noted
by d i m m i n g , et al. [I], 1 Bailey and Boothroyd [2], Henricksen
[3], Wallace and Boothroyd [4], and Wallace and Andrew [5],
The phenomenon has also been studied in more detail by other
workers [6-12]. In the present investigation, the study is con-
fined to an examination of the mechanics of cutting at depths of
cut within the sphere of influence of the rounded cutting edge.
The experimental part of the study is confined to a consideration
of the cutting action (at 32 in./min) of orthogonal tools having
exaggeratedly large edge radii. I n this way the uncertainties
associated with the accurate measurement and maintenance of
very small radii may be avoided. It is expected that the results
will have relevance to the study of the behavior of materials when
being fine-machined with normally sharp tools. The presence
of a build-up in this cutting regime is of vital importance as noted
by Eugene [13] and Okushima and Kakino [14] and this matter
is considered here in some detail.
1 regions beneath cylindrical rollers and forming tools. I t is as-
Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.
Contributed by the Production Engineering Division and presented
at the Winter Annual Meeting, Detroit, Mich., November 1 1 -
15, 1973, of T H E AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, August 2, 1973. Paper
No. 73-WA/Prod-15.
display little tendency to form a build-up, other materials such
as steel or aluminium alloys, develop large accretions of material
at low or moderate cutting speeds. Materials which form large
built-up-edges when being machined are frequently characterized
by a large strain-hardening coefficient which is the explanation
given by Chandiramani and Cook [15] for the commonly ob-
served decrease in build-up size at higher cutting speeds; There-
fore in the absence of a large built-up-edge it would seem reason-
able to assume the existence of a small strain-hardening coefficient
for the workpiece material. In any event the workpiece material
is usually subjected to some degree of plastic straining prior to
final machining and before it reaches the vicinity of the cutting
tool, so that subsequent strain-hardening in this region may be
expected to be small. I t is well known that the size of the build-up
also depends on the cutting speed and the rake angle of the tool
[16]. However, the variation in build-up size when machining
at small depths of cut does not seem to have been made the sub-
ject of systematic investigation.
Whereas the built-up-edge, as commonly conceived, is an
"active" dead-metal zone (in t h a t it grows in size, becomes un-
stable, and then fractures), a small, stable, dead-metal zone of
constant size has occasionally been thought to exist in certain
circumstances when machining materials which do not exhibit
large, active formations. The possibility of such a build-up
occurring was first considered by Lee and Shaffer [17] while
factual evidence has been supplied more recently by Palmer and
Yeo [18] and Piguet [19]. When cutting zinc and free machining
brass at low speeds, the present authors also found evidence of a
small stable build-up, as shown in Pig. 1.
The theory proposed in this paper dealing with this matter is
partly based on the work of Johnson [20], who assumed the ex-
istence of circular cylindrical upper-bound surfaces in the plastic
sumed here that a similar plastic region exists beneath the lower
curved surface of a rounded edge when cutting, in the absence of
an active build-up formation. I t is considered that this approach
may at least provide a useful comparison with experimental data.

1258 / NOVEMBER 1974 Transactions of the ASME

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Fig. 1 The stable build-up in flnish cutting-material zinc, nose radius,
0.006 in., tlr = 0.8,32 in./min
An ideal rigid plustic workpiel:e material is thus assumed when a
small, stable builll-up is formed. (This assumption may be re-
luxed in a lut.er development..) In the first part. of the paper, the
workpiece mat.erial whieh passes beneath t.he t.ool is, t.herefore,
ussmned to slide past a small, incipien t. build-up and then t.o
t.mverse a plastic region termell the rHbbing region (Fig. 2).
While eonducting preliminary tests (described in a later
section) it was observed that 1;]w l~hip left the rounded part. of the
cutting edge at approximately the same vertical posit.ion as that
of the llllCUt sl1l'face, when no active build-Hp was formed.
The tlwory developed here is l:heeked by eomparing the re-
sults with cuttinp; foree dat.a, t.hese measlll'ell Vftlues beinp; con-
sidered to be unin{\ueJl(~ed by the Ol:eurrence of plast.ic side fiow
01' the existence of clearn.nce face forces.
Analysis
Although l:oncernell with a sit.uation whil:h is rarely (l!lCOllll-
tel'(~din pnwtice (t S l' (1 -I- sin a)), this analysis does provide a
(:onvellient startinp; point for the allequate treatment of a com-
plex phenolllenon, vir-., the cuLt.in/!; of materiab wit.h positive rake
tools having rounued ellges (iJlCedp;e of the sharp tool is,in any
(:ase, frequently considered t.o be rounded [fi) and (7)). Its relll-
tion to data obtained when cuttill/!; at larger depths is outlined
in a later section of the paper.
---Nomenclature---------------------------
depth of cut
l' = sharpness radius of eutting edge
a tool rake angle
ae critical negative rake angle at which chip
formation ceases
at
00, 0" 0 angles indicated in Fig. 3
l/>m anticloekwise rotation of l/>-slip line indi-
cated in Fig. 20
chip-rake face contact length (Fig. 8)
clearance angle of the tool
projected length (in direction normal to
the direction of tool motion) of contact
of builcl-uP and chip (Fig. 8)
VI nondimensional velocity indicated in
hodograph shown in Fig. 3 (cutting
velocity equal to unity)
nondimensional velocity of material
around the lower surface of the cutting
edge (Fig. 3)
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. TOOL ADVANCE
TOOL
MAT~IAL. F;9W
WORKPIECE
VELQCITY/
DISCONTINUITY
Fig. 2 The geometry of the cutting action (stable build-up regime)
I The Stable Build-Up Regime. fn the absence of an active
build-up, it is assumed that the euge is subject. to two inuepenuent,
bHt simultaneous fwtions, viz.,
i a rubbing aetion at and beneath a portion of the cl1l'ved tool
base anu,
ii a cut:ting action above the rubbing region.
Stickill/!; friction conditions will he assumed to prevail for
depths of cut t S l' (1 -I- sin a), sinee in this region pressmes may
be assumed to be sufficiently high.
(0) Force Component Parallel to Tool Motion.
i) The Rubbing Action. The so-called "stagnation point on the
tool nose edge," beneath which no cutting action oeclll'S, has been
eonsidered by Kaczmarek [21], Tsvirko [22], COllnolly and
J1ubenstein [2:{], Kragelskii [24], and Sisson find I(egg [25J.
The tangent plane to the rounded edge at this point, may be con-
sidered llS having an equivalent rake angle. 1n their work, the
authors f2(i), KomandUl'i [27], and Rubenstein, et a!. [28], de-
termined experimentally the mitielll rake angle of "sharp" tools
at wldeh sUl'face shearillg eeases to OCClll' and cutting begins.
fn the investigation reported in an earlier paper [2G] in which
hi/!;h-speell steel negative rake tools (a = -55, -GO, -70, -75,
and -80 deg) were used to machine zinc and free machining
specific energy expended (force/area of
cut) in the plastic rubbing region
k ee (= Fecit) specific energy for the cutting region
(above the rubbing region)
ke (= ker -I- keel specific cutting energy
k tr (= F trlt) specific thrust resistance due to the rub-
bing region
!Gte (= F telt) speeific thrust resistance due to material
bearing on the surfaces of the stable
build-up
k t (= k tr + k te ) specific thrust resistance
Fp power cutting force component per unit
width parallel to direction of tool mo-
tion
thrust-cutting force eomppnent per unit
width normal to direction of tool mo-
tion
power rubbing force acting over the base
of the tool per unit workpiece width
power rubbing force per unit width asso-
Fe'"
ciated with circular cylindrical velocity
discontinuity beneath rounded edge
(Oontinued on next page)
NOVEMBER 1974 / 1259

HODOGRAPH FOR
THE UPPER
BOUND
( V n ' CUTTING SPEED)
Fig. 3 Circular-cylindrical upper-bound solution for rolling contact
brass at a cutting speed of 32 in. per min, the value of this
critical rake angle was found to lie between 75 and 80 deg.
Since the value suggested by Komanduri [27], viz., 76 deg,
falls within this range the theoretical derivations outlined in this
paper employ the latter value.
Bearing in mind the concept of circular cylindrical surfaces of
velocity discontinuity [20], an upper-bound solution m a y be de-
veloped for the plastic flow of material beneath the rubbing re-
gion. Prom an examination of Pig. 3, it may be seen t h a t the
energy expended per seo per unit workpiece width in the
plastic rubbing region, ker, is given by the expression,
ker = r[{ABC)V2c + (AEC)Vi] (1)
where T is the material yield shear stress at the tool base, V2c is
the velocity of material around the lower surface of the tool, and
Vi is the velocity vector indicated in the hodograph, the cutting
speed being taken to be equal to unity. Since the length ABC is
assumed to remain unchanged at all times regardless of changes
in the value of Q2, it may be seen that, as the value of 62 decreases,
i the value of Vic increases
ii the value of Vi increases, and
iii the length AEC decreases.
"Nomenclature-
F(= F + Feri power rubbing force per unit width
Fe, power cutting force per unit width due to
chip sliding over assumed stable
build-up
Feci power cutting force per unit width due to
workpiece rubbing over lower surface
of stable build-up
Fee ( Feci + Fec2) power cutting force per unit width
Fe(= Fe. + Fec) total tool power edge force per unit width,
for t < r (1 + sin a)
Ftr = thrust force per unit width due to work-
piece rubbing over base of the tool
Fid = thrust force per unit width due to chip
action against the upper surface of the
stable build-up
thrust force per unit width due to work-
piece material bearing against the lower
surface of the stable build-up
Fie ( = Flcl + Ftci) thrust force per unit width due to ma-
terial bearing on both surfaces of the
stable build-up
Ft(= Ftr + Fu) total thrust edge force per unit width for
t < r (1 + sin a)
1260 / NOVEMBER 1974
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9<Bo - 14 WHICH
CORRESPONDS TO a . = - 7 6 "
r(l-cos8)
WORKPIECE
NOT TO SCALE
HODOGRAPH FOR THE
BEST UPPER BOUND
Fig. 4 Best upper-bound solution for the rubbing region
The value of 6i m a y range between 14 and 90 deg, the former
value corresponding to the value of a , = 76 deg. The mini-
mum value of her may be shown to occur when di equals 90 deg,
the resulting upper-bound solution being shown in Pig. 4. The
power rubbing force (in the direction of tool motion), Feri,
associated with shearing at the tool base within the rubbing
region ABC, is given by the equation, F,n (power rubbing
force acting over the base of the tool per unit workpiece width)
= T-ABC-V2C
(2a)
= r-2r (cos 6)-1
Therefore,
Vcrl/TT = 20/cOS 6 (26)
The power rubbing force per unit width associated with the
velocity discontinuity AEC, Fi, is given by the equation,
<TI, ff2, o-3 = principal stresses beneath a cylinder slid-
ing and rolling over the surface of a flat
plate
po = maximum unit pressure acting on the elas-
tic contact area between a cylinder and
flat plate (cylinder rolling and sliding
on the plate)
a = half the contact width between cylinder
and plate
?'o = radius of cylinder
Ei, Vi = Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio for
the material of the cylinder
E2, v2 = Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio for
the material of the plate
h = yield shear stress of the material of the
plate
\pi, \pi = angular regions around periphery of
rounded tool edge \pi elastic contact,
t^2 plastic contact
T = yield shear stress of the material of the
workpiece during cutting (within the
primary shear flow zone)
Tf = friction shear stress of the material of the
workpiece as it moves along the outer
boundary of the stable buil d-up
Transactions of the ASME
 Feri = T-AEC-V, f e c i = -P(C0S / ) { < r ( l COS &>)}/cOS Clf
(3a)
= TKT sin 8 tan d -f r(sin cc/){i r(l cos 0<>)}/cos /

Therefore, ( 1 cos do ) I + tan at 1 (6)

Fi/rT = ir sin d tan d (36)

where P is the pressure exerted by the workpiece material over
The total power rubbing force per unit workpiece width for the the tool edge (as estimated approximately in Appendix I), i is the
entire rubbing region is then obtained from equations (26) and undeformed chip thickness and,
(3b), viz.,

Fer = Ferl + Fsr2

a, =
H)
I t also follows from the force balance shown in Fig. 5 that,
(7)

Fer/rT = (Fn/rr) + (Fri/rT) (4) Fec2 = T-FM

= T-(~FH + DO - MN)
The specific energy associated with the rubbing region, for a
depth of cut t = r (1 cos 8), is then obtained from the equa- = T-{(tan ctf){t r-\ cos So)} + rr cos a / rr sin do
tion,

ker/r = F/r{l - cos d) T = rr | (tan / ) I 1 + cos do) + cos af sin do} (8)

= (2 1_ r sin 0 tan0 )/(l - cos 6) (5) The total power cutting force Fec, is the sum of Fea and F ec2 , i.e.,
\cos 8 J
Fee = Feci + FeC2 (9)
where 0 <' 0 < do.
ii The Cutting Action. The power cutting force associated with The specific energy for the cutting region, hec, is given by the
the presence of the small stable dead-metal zone consists of two equation,
parts, as indicated in Pig. 5, viz., Fecit (10)
(a) t h a t part which is due to the chip sliding over the dead- The total specific cutting energy expended b y the rounded por-
metal zone, Feci, and tion of the tool edge at any undeformed chip thickness, r{\
(6) that part which has its origin in the rubbing of the work- cos do) < t < r(l + sin a), is then given by the following expres-
piece over the lower surface of the dead-metal zone, Feci- sion derived from equations (5) and (10),

Referring to Fig. 5, it may be seen that, r(l cos do)

KB t&ec ~~T~ rCei" (ID
t

ESTIMATED (r )
340 BRASS x F c - a =10 00018 "

ALUMINUM O F, - a = 25 00022"

300 ZINC a F r - a = 25 00014"

Fig. 5 Force balance for the cutting region 220

500 -

CO

i 200
(- rr
03 o

t 50
^~\T\ ESTIMATED" VALUE
OF r ( I + sin a )

(Arrows indicate tool edge forces)

J I I
10 ' I 1 1 1 1 I I l l 1 ! 1 2 4 6 8 10 xlO
0 005 0002 0-01 003
t/r DEPTH OF CUT , inch

Fig. 6 (kt/r) and (fc,/r) versus (t/r) for the rubbing region Fig. 7 Measured tool forces w h e n using " s h a r p " tools

Journal of Engineering for Industry NOVEMBER 1974 / 1261

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 The total power tool edge force per unit workpiece width is,

Fe = Fer + Fee (12)

It is interesting to note that the value of k e depends only on the

value of the rutio t/I', rather than on the values of l' or t inrle-
pendently. However, the value of Fe docs (lepellli on the values
of l' and t independently.

(b) The Force Component Normal to the Direction of Tool Motion

j The best, or least upper bound solution
The Rubbing Region.
is that shown in Fig. 4. From an examinution of this figl1l'e it
follows that the thrust force per unit workpiece wi(lth, F", normal
to the cutting velocity vector, due to material bearinl?; on the
boundary AUC (for II von Mises material in which the normal
stress is equal to Y;h), is given by the expression

F'r/I'r = 2V3 sin e (13)

while the specific thrust resistance, k'r, for a machining depth Fig. 8 Grinding attachment for rounded-edge tools
t = 1'(1- cos e) is,
k'r/r = (20 sin e)/(1 - eos e) (14)

e
for 0 < ~ 00 = 14 deg (corresponding to a e = -76 deg, as in-
divided by r), is dependent on the vahtc of the rat.io t/I', but not
dicated previously).
on the values of t or r independen tly. In the analysis outlined in
When theoretical values of log (ker/r) and 101?; (k,,/r) arc plotted
the fOJ'(lgoing, the influence of variation in (,ooll'l1ke angle 01' clear-
al?;ainst values of log (t/I'), llpproximately linear relationships are
ance alll?;le is not considered, and in fact, is assumed to be small.
evidenced, as indicated in Fig. G.
The analysis given in this seetion should have value in relation
jj The Cutting Region. For vlllues of t > l' (1 - cos flo), chip re-
to practical sit.uations or its development may be considered to be
moval may be expected and a cutting mechanism will prevail in
pointless. In this rel?;ard it was (~Ollsidered necessary to deter-
addition to a rubbing action. The thrust force component will
mine the (~xtent of the influence of the cutting edge when using
then comprise two parts, viz.,
praetical cutting tools.
(u) that eaused by the chip slidinl?; over the dead metal zone,
F'e! and Preliminary Tests With Nominally Sharp Tools
(Ii) that caused by the pressure applied to the lower surface of
In the past, the strail?;ht line graphs whir,h have usually re-
the dell(l-metalllone, F,e2.
sulted when plots of measured cutting foree values in terms of eor-
It. may be shown that (Fig. [) responding nominal depths of cut have frequently been extrapo-
lated to lIero depth of cut. The resulting positive intercepts on
F'e! = rl' ((;. - 1 + cos (0) 1 - (~) tan a f ) (15)
the cutting foree axis have been assoeiated, in principle, wit,h the
plastic flow of material IIround the tool edge profile. The logic
involved in t,his arl?;ument is incorreet sinee n lIero (~utting forr,e
where, as before, af = - sin -1 (1 -;) and P is the quantity de- magnitude must result from the use of a lIero depth of cut regard-
less of tool geometry.
fined in Appendix I. It can also be shown that, (c.f. equation The natural sharpness of a culting tool depends on a number of
(8, factors, as demonstrated by ToujwS [2llJ, e.g., the induded angle

F'e2 =' 0 n'{ (tan af) C- 1 + cos eo) + cos af ~ sin eo}
of the tool, the grinding procedure, the post de-burring pror,ess,
the skill of the operlltor and the hardness of the tool material.
Hinee e(lge radii arc difficult to measure in practice, II correct,
(16) interpretation of r,uttinl?; force da(.a would seem to be a possible
alternative procedure whereby an aeeurate assessment might be
It follows that the thrust force component per unit workpiece made. Jn lin attempt to explore this matter further, r,uttinl?;
width due to the contribution of the cutting region is, force measurements were made using oJ'{linary tools having vary-
ing degrees of edge sharpness. The experiment described here
(17)
has value only when it is remembered that in this investigation
and that the influence of a flank weal' land has been deliberately negleeted.
The normal euttinl?; tools which were employed were divided
(18) into two sepnl'llte groups. One I?;roup WitS groulHl with a nomi-
nally sharp edge. These tools were then subjected to a short,
The total specific thrust resistance is then given by the expression, preliminary eutting operation in order to effeet a slight roundinl?;

k, = k,c + k'r ( 1 - t
cos eo) (19)
of their edges. In this cllse the theory developed in the earlier
part of the paper was used to obtain edge radii values from
measured cutting forr,e values. Theoretieal values of 1'(1 +sin a)
and, were then found to agree with the abseissae range r,overing the
nonlinear portions of the l"p - t and FQ - t graphs, as shown in
F, = F'r + F'e (20) Fig. 7.
The ot;]lCr group of tools WIlS ground with the aid of a grindinl?;
It follows from the analysis outlincd herc that the tool edl?;e thrust attadlluent shown in Fig. 8. (While being ground with the aid
force is determined by thc material yield shear stress, the depth of of this device, the tool is forced to rotnte in a plane whir,h is nor-
cut and the tool edp;e rudius indcpendently. Thc total specific mal to the cutt.inl?; edge about an axis parullel to the edp;e.) These
thrust rcsistance (or the thrust force pel' unit dcpth of cut tools, havinp; known values of edp;e radii, were then used to obtain

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 the cutting force data shown plotted in Fig. 9. The tools used
in the experiment described in this section had a common
clearance angle of 9 deg and rake angles of 10 and 25 deg.
I t m a y be concluded from the experiments described in this
section t h a t the tool edge force cannot be the extrapolated value
on an Fp t graph, but is rather represented by the force ordinate
corresponding to the value of t at which departure from linearity
is observed. The latter is much larger in most cases, as shown
in Fig. 7.
Experimental Details
As mentioned previously the direct study of the cutting process
at very small depths of cut has usually been complicated by dif-
ficulties associated with the measurement of the edge radii of
nominally sharp tools. In order to overcome this problem, at
least to some extent, orthogonal cutters were ground with ex-
aggeratedly large edge radii, using the special grinding attach-
ment described previously.
These high-speed steel orthogonal tools were ground with rake
angles of 0, 15, and 25 deg and with a common clearance angle of
9 deg. An additional tool having a rake angle of 25 deg, a clear-
ance angle of 4 deg and an edge radius of 0.006 in., was also em-
ployed. Other edge radii, being larger, were checked with the
aid of an optical projector at a magnification of 100X. Frequent
re-grinding of these edges and the use of low speeds minimized
the associated problems of tool wear.
These tools were then mounted individually in a lathe tool
dynamometer which was secured to the ram of a milling machine.
The output from the dynamometer was fed to an ultraviolet re-
corder in order to measure simultaneously the two components of
the cutting force.
The workpiece specimens were machined from plates of free-
cutting brass (62 percent Cu, 35 percent Zn, and 3.25 percent
Pb), and zinc (99.9 percent). The brass plates were stress-
relieved at 475 deg F for one hour prior to cutting. The plates
were 1/i in. thick and had a length of 12 in. The workpiece ma-
terials were chosen in order to obtain two main types of chip
formation, viz., continuous chips (zinc), and discontinuous chips
(brass). All cutting tests were carried out at 32 in./min in the
absence of a cutting fluid.
Experimental Observations
T h e surface quality obtained when cutting zinc was found to be
superior to that resulting from the use of brass, while the amounts
of side flow observed were larger when machining the latter ma-
terial. Since no detectable differences were observed between the
cutting force values recorded during the first, second, or third
passes over the same specimen the extent of side flow was judged
to be quite small with the material moving downwards, away
from the cutting edge.
The sides of the specimens were observed with the aid of a
cinematographic camera during the process of cutting. Traces
of chip material adhering to the tool after cutting were examined
in every Case using a tool-room microscope (magnification 100 X ).
The chip-tool contact lengths, projected onto a plane normal to
the cutting velocity vector, were found to be nearly equal to the
uncut chip thickness (regardless of the values of a or cl), for any
value of (t/r), when cutting zinc and brass, as indicated in Fig. 10.
Experimental Results
The experimental results shown in Fig. 11 indicate t h a t the
cutting force magnitudes (and the specific cutting energies and
thrust resistance) are little influenced by changes in rake (0-25
deg) and clearance (4-9 deg) angles when cutting at depths 0 < i
< r (1 + sin a). Similar results were obtained when machining
zinc. The total specific cutting energy and the total specific
thrust resistance depend on the value of the ratio (t/r), rather
than on the values of t or r independently.
In order to compare the experimental results with calculated
theoretical values, the material yield shear stress of the workpiece
material was determined approximately from the results of force

ALUMINUM A r = 0006"

ALUMINUM V r = 0 003"
- - EXPERIMENTAL '

BRASS O r - 0003' O .STICKING

> ZINC
ZINC X r = O 003" x STICKING & SLIDING
_J
<
14
A STICKING
1
s BRASS
s = A. STICKING & SLIDING

- X .

3g X.1-

r/
3d X yk
X A/
o i-
T O
CL X /
5l
H
o o
w -.
" p
o \-
_
x
X
n/
K
i i i 1 1
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 x 10 2 4 6 10 xlO

DEPTH OF CUT , inch DEPTH OF CUT , inch

Fig. 9 The influence of tool edge roundness on culling forces for larger Fig. 10 Projected chip-tool contact lengths versus I, for 0 < r < r(l +
depths of cut ( a = 2 5 d e g , eJ = 9 deg) sin)

Journal of Engineering for Industry NOVEMBER 1974 / 1263

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 Table 1 Analysis of results

Empirical and theoretical equations of the form

Logio(/ci/r) = A B logic, (t/r), where i e or I
Standard
Number error of
of Simple estimation
Workpiece T psi data correlation for
Material X 103 A B points coefft. F over X i a deg d deg
Zinc (i)() 35.0 0.5912 0.5594 183 -0.977 0.0431 e 0 4
15
(ii) 0.5941 0.3537 14 -0.997 0.0094 e 25 9
Zinc (i) 35.0 0.4984 0.82 189 -0.981 0.0578 t 0 4
15
0.5044 0.772 14 -0.996 0.023 t 25 9
Brass (i)
(?)
40.9 0.6032 0.371 166 -0.95 0.0407 e 0 4
15
0.5817 0.3059 14 -0.997 0.0094 e 25 9
(i) 40.9 0.6419 0.6563 106 -0.884 0.1286 t 0 4
15
(ii) 0.5044 0.772 14 -0.996 0.023 t 25 9
Rubbing region 0.6797 0.4361 14 -0.999 0.0151 e
0 <t/r < 0.03 0.6858 0.5013 14 -1.000 0.0028 t
(o
> (i) expt., (ii) theory

measurements derived from orthogonal cutting tests using
nominally sharp tools. The average values, derived from Mer-
chant's force balance equation, were 40.9 X 103 psi for brass and
35.0 X 10 3 psi for zinc. The relationship between the shear
stress acting a t the primary deformation zone and that existing
at the surface of the build-up will be discussed in a later section.
I n the tests described in this section the tools were very sharp
and chips were macroscopically continuous without traces of
build-up. Von Turkovich [30] considered these conditions to be
indispensible.
Discussion
No account has been taken in the analysis presented here of
the plastic zone beneath the cutting tool. The shape of this
zone will probably be influenced to a small extent by the clearance
angle of the tool. Furthermore material side flow beneath the
tool may be expected to contribute to a change in material proper-
ties as the workpiece material approaches the base of the tool.
The critical rake angle (the value 76 deg being adopted in
this analysis) would seem t o be little influenced by the properties
of the workpiece material when cutting in this regime, since the
results obtained for brass and zinc are identical.
Although the presence of a stable build-up does not lead to a
marked deterioration in the quality of the surface finish, the chips
so formed derived from an equivalent cutting tool having an
equivalent negative rake angle which for small cuts, is determined
b y the depth of cut. I n this case it is difficult to understand the
possibility of continuing edge wear, except by the growth of a
flank wear land. Little increase in natural sharpness radius
would be expected.
The sharpness of a knife may be best assessed by a series of
short cutting tests since optical or other means would seem to be
beset with difficulty.
The study of the primary shear flow zone at low cutting speeds
is a complex topic so t h a t the use of a slip-line method to calcu-
late the normal pressures acting around the tool edge must be
treated with some degree of caution. I t must be noted t h a t the
shear stresses acting in the primary shear flow region are assumed
to be uniformly distributed even though this is the position taken
byThomsen[31).
The fact t h a t the zinc chips in most cases left the surface of the
tool edge above the vertical position of the uncut surface means
t h a t additional sliding forces might in some cases contribute to
the measured values of ke and kt. Better agreement with the
theoretical results was in fact obtained for brass and in this case
projected chip-tool contact lengths were uniformly equal to the
uncut chip thicknesses. However, the chips formed in the latter
case were discontinuous. The average force values might there-
fore be expected to be smaller since the chips would not bear
continuously against the tool. Therefore the measured values
of k and kt may be expected to be larger for zinc than for brass
workpieces.
The deformation occurring at the chip-tool interface must de-
pend on that which has taken place in the primary deformation
zone. The ratio of the shear flow stresses at these locations has
been determined experimentally by a number of authors. A
value in the range 0.8-1.0 was obtained by Sata [32] for the ratio
K where,
shear stress at the tool interface
K =
shear stress at the shear plane
In the same paper Sata suggested t h a t K should be nearly equal
to unity at low cutting speeds. In other work Lira and Thomsen
[33] supported this result. Other workers have found the value
of the ratio to be dependent on cutting speed and tool rake angle.
However in the present investigation a value of K equal to unity
was considered t o adequately represent the physical situation.
The values of r were determined in an admittedly approximate
manner although the same method was used in subsequent tests
carried out at higher cutting speeds.
Since the measured values of kc and fo. depend on the value of
(t/r), regardless of the values of I and r independently, the results
given in this paper may be applicable to the machining of ma-
terials with sharper tools, i.e., the validity of the model concept
would seem to be correct.
Further justification for the position taken in this paper regard-
ing the absence of any influence of the clearance angle on mea-
sured cutting force values may be found in references [34 and 35].
While Hsu [34] and Chisholm [35] assumed clearance face forces
to be negligibly small, Merchant observed no detectable change
in cutting force magnitude accompanying changes in clearance
angle. Finnie and Rabinowicz [36] applied radioactive tech-
niques to the study of tool wear phenomena and in the course of
their work detected little pick-up of radioactive workpiece ma-
terial on the clearance faces of the cutting tools which they used.
In their experimental work with sharp negative rake tools, the
authors [26] failed to observe traces of chip or workpiece ma-
terial adhering to the clearance face. Since the rigidity of the
machine-tool system used in the present study was high (0.022 X
1 0 - 6 in./lb) changes in clearance angle cavised by elastic deflection
may be expected to have been negligibly small.
The theory developed in this paper assumes the existence of a

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 uniform pressure distribution around the surface of the rounded
edge. This assumption is supported by the experimental results
of Okushima, et al. [37], who employed photoelastic cutting tools
to machine soft metal workpieces. In their analysis of the chip-
ping of cutting edges Tanaka, et al. [38] also assumed the ex-
istence of a uniform pressure around the edge of the tool.
Support for the shear stress distribution adopted in this paper
may be found in the work of Komanduri [27] and Okushima, et al.
[37]. All previously published data which assumes the possible
existence of a stagnation point at the cutting edge (and the conse-
quent change in sign of the shear stress on either side of it), is in
agreement with the general tenor of the argument presented here.
A final comment concerns the fact that no evidence was found
of plastic recovery which phenomenon is characteristic of the
cutting action obtained when using sharp negative rake tools
[26].
The influence of possible elastic effects at very small values of t
is discussed in Appendix 2.
Conclusions
(a) Stable B u i l d - U p F o r m a t i o n .
1 When finish machining at small depths of cut, the role of
the rounded edge assumes a larger degree of importance.
2 Agreement between observed cutting force data and the re-
sults of the theory presented in this paper was obtained and this
indicates that the latter may have some value in the understand-
ing of the process, for { < r (1 -f- sin a).
3 The time-honored procedure of extrapolating cutting force-
depth of cut graphs to zero depth of cut may lead to erroneous
results.
4 The specific cutting energy and specific thrust resistance
depend only on the value of the ratio t/r and not on that of r only,
for values of t < r (1 + sin a). These quantities are also in-
sensitive to changes in the values of a and cl for the same range
of values of t. This fact lends credence to the proposal that model
experiments may provide useful information concerning the
mechanics of finish machining.
5 The effective tool rake angle when machining in the range
t < r (1 + sin a) is determined by the value of t.
6 The assessment of tool edge radii may be facilitated by a
proper understanding of measured cutting force data.
P = - r ( l + 2<t>m) (27)
Now it may be seen (Fig. 13) that </>, = I - ar 1, sticking
friction conditions being assumed at the surface of the tool.
Therefore,
P |r(2.571 - 2af)\ (28)
The analysis presented here assumes a slip-line field which is not
supported by the principle of volume constancy. However the
result given by equation (28) is believed to represent a first ap-
proximation in the absence of other, more reliable, information.
Bhattacharyya [39] and Chandreskaren and Kapoor [40] applied
a similar technique to the one adopted here.
APPENDIX II
When vising very small depths of cut the effective rake angle of
a rounded-edged tool will approach the critical angle for chip
formation. The specific energies and thrust resistances will tend
to infinity since energy will still be expended in elastic and plastic
deformation beneath the surface. In these circumstances the
balance between elastic and plastic deformational energies as-
sumes a larger degree of importance, in relation to the theory pre-
sented in this paper
Let the periphery of the rounded edge be divided into two
parts, Fig. 14, around one of which elastic deflections occur, (\pi),
while the other is in contact with metal in a plastic state (l/^).
In order to consider the possible influence of elastic deflections,
the stress conditions occurring around the periphery of the edge
may be approximated by those which exist in the vicinity of a
cylinder rolling and sliding on a flat plate. This problem has
been treated by Smith and Liu [41], who derived values for the
maximum principal stresses beneath a steel cylinder bearing on a
steel plate, in terms of the maximum unit pressure po acting on
B a = 25", CL = 4 , r = 0006

A a = 25, CL = 9 , r = 0 003 "

Acknowledgments
700 8 a = 0, CL = 9 , r = 0005"
The research described in this paper was financed by the Uni-
versity of Waterloo. The authors wish to acknowledge the help- A a = 25, CL=9, r = 0006"
ful advice of Professor R. Sowerby, Mechanical Engineering De-
600 O a = 15, CL = 9 " , r = 0 007"
partment, McMaster University, Ontario, Professor M. J.
Hillier, Mechanical Engineering Department, Memorial Uni-
EXPERIMENTAL CURVES
versity, Newfoundland, and Professor R. N. Dubey, Mechanical
Engineering Department, University of Waterloo, and Dr. W. K. >- 500
Luk, formerly of the same address. on
z
UJ

APPENDIX I
The pressure, P, acting on the tool face at this speed in the
absence of an active build-up may be estimated as follows, using
the Hencky equation, (assuming a constant value for r in ac-
cordance with the suggestion of Thomsen [31]). o
Ul
CL
P + 2r<j)m = constant along an a line (26)

where T is the material yield shear stress (assumed to be inde-

pendent of the degree of straining), and <m is the anticlockwise 100

rotation of the slip-line from an arbitrary datum.

The major principle stress acting in the direction parallel to
the surface at the uncut surface is tensile and if the datum direc- 0 J_ _L _I_ _L J L J_ _L J_
0 01 02 03 0-4 0-5 0-6 07 08 0-9 10 II 12 1-3
tion be chosen to be the free uncut surface then the constant in
the Hencky equation nray be shown to be equal to T. It DEPTH OF C U T / TOOL NOSE RADIUS , t/r

follows that, F i g . 11 i , ( e x p t l . ) v e r s u s r/r, (brass)

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 90 - 1 V
70 WORKPIECE FREE SURFACE
2' \
50 3^ \ 45 TOOL

30 _ 4' ^ J ^
- a SUP LINE

'
7 15

2 4' 4m =7 F4
8 -
^4 Fig. 13 a-slip line rotation between workpiece surface and tool (sticking
5 friction)
EXPERIMENTAL THEORETICAL
1 r a = 0, CL = 9
2 2' a = 15, CL =9" 2 Bailey, J. A. and Boothroyd, G., "A Critical Review of Some
2 3 3' a = 25, CL =4 Previous Work on the Mechanics of Metal Working Process,"
4 4' a =25, CL =9 JOURNAL OF ENGINEBBING FOB INDUSTBY, TBANS. ASME, Series B,
Vol. 90, No. 1, Feb. 1968, p. 54.
1 1M i l I 1 1
3 Henriksen, E. K., "Residual Stresses in Mechanical Surfaces,"
1 1 III 1 I l l
0-5 10 1-5 Trans. Danish Academy of Technical Sciences, Vol. 7, 1948.
t/r 4 Wallace, P . W., and Boothroyd, G., "Tool Forces and Tool-
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Fig. 12 (fce/r) and (ICI/T) versus t/r, (brass and zinc) Engineering Sciences, Vol. 6, 1964, p. 74. ..
5 Wallace, P. W. and Andrew, C , "Machining Forces, Some
Effects of Tool Vibration," Journal of Mechanical Engineering
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form, 7 Albrecht, P., "A New Development in the Theory of Metal
Cuttingthe Ploughing Process in Metal Cutting," JOUBNAL OF
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2, May 1960, p. 348.
cri, rr2, and or3 being the maximum principal stresses. 8 Masuko, M., "Fundamental Researches on Metal Cutting
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10 Richter, A., and Jacobs, H. J., "Der Einfluss der Scheidkanten-
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materials of the roller and plate, respectively. At t h e onset of einheitlichen Darstellung der zerspankraft Komponenten," Annals
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14 Okushima, K., and Kakino, Y., "Study on the Generating
(0.67p 0 ) 2 + (0.09p)2 + (0.86p)2 = 6ft2 (32) Process of Machined Surface," Bulletin JSME, Vol. 12, No. 49, 1969,
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18, TBANS. ASME, Vol. 73, 1951, pp. 405.
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