Deep-Water Sedimentation: Technological Challenges For The Next Millennium Special Edition ej PETROBRAS66 Deep-Water Sedimentation: Technological Challenges For The Next Millennium Special Edition This book is a product of a combined effort between the Brazilian Association of Petroleum Geologists and Petrdleo Brasileiro S.A. in order to make available to the geological community the results of the "Deep-Water Sedimentation: Technological Challenges For The Next Millennium Workshop" held during the 31” International Geological Congress - 2000. Edited by: Ciro Jorge AppiForeword This workshop was convened to bring together leading sedimentologists and oil explorationists for an exchange of views on recent scientific advances in deep marine sedimentology and on the evolution of sedimentary deposits in general, which ultimately guide the oil industry's efforts in advancing towards very deep waters. RIO DEEP-SEDS 2000 provides an opportunity for the interaction between academic researchers investigating the different processes, scales and techniques involved in the search for hydrocarbons in deep-water environments and colleagues from oil companies who apply the concepts and discoveries with the leading edge technology developed for the industry. To add diversity to our workshop the Conveners have invited speakers and contributors known for their contrasting views to provide a variety of possible answers to the questions we face in our routine work. Such questions involve gravity flow rheology and triggering mechanisms, scale changes, ancient and modern analogues, numerical and physical modeling, and the role of bottom currents just to name a few. Our objective is to improve our understanding of the genesis and development of deep-water sediments and their significance as targets for hydrocarbon exploration. We view this meeting as an opportunity for dialogue between scientists and exploration geologists working in the oil industry on the concepts that guide our understanding of deep-water sedimentation. tis our hope that RIO DEEP- SEDS 2000 will be the first of many such opportunities for international exchange of emerging ideas, research results and industrial applications related to the search for hydrocarbons in deep-water environments. This workshop was organized asa tribute to our colleague Dr. Luiz Fernando Guimaraes Caddah in appreciation of his outsdanding contribution to the petroleum geology of Brazil. The conveners also acknowledge the outstanding contribution of other renowned colleagues whose names appear at the head of each section. Conveners Giro Jorge Appi Roberto Salvador Francisco d/Avila Adriano Roessler VianaTable of Contents Tribute to Caddah History of interpretation of deep-water sandstones in Brazil DELLA FAVERA, J. C Deep marine turbidite environments .. BOUMA, A. H. 16 Turbidity current flow around variable topography KNELLER, 8. Groundwater discharge: a triggering mechanism for slope failure and oneness in the Campos basin, Brazil... AZAMBUIA FILHO, N.C. de; APPI, C. 1; BENDER, A. and PENTEADO, H 25 Seismic features diagnostic of contourite drifts and sediment waves... FAUGERES, J. C; VIANA, A.; GONTHIER, E.; MIGEON, S. and STOW, D. A. V. Thin-bedded turbidites and associated faci STOW, D. A. V. their nature, geometry and reservoir properties A stratigraphic and architectural-element methodology for the subdivision and interpretation ‘of deep-water clastic sequences: an example from the Cretaceaus Venado Sandstone, Sacramento Valley, California LOWE, D. R. and GHOSH, B. Application of stratigraphic architectural analysis to a sand-rich, deep-sea depostonalsystare The Rocks Sandstone (Eocene), California nnn MASON, E. L. and GRAHAM, S. A, The contribution of sedimentological studies on deep-water deposits in the Petrobras exploration process.. CARMINATTI, M.; GUARDADO, L. R.; MARTINS, C. C.; DAVILA, K. 5, SPADIN,, A. K. and APPI, ©.) Methodologies for uncertainty assessment of deep-water facies and basins. PRATHER, B. E. and STEELE, D. R.Evolution of turbidite facies, reservoir architecture and depositional models of stratigraphically-controlled turbidite deposits: examples from the Lower Congo Tertiary Basin (Angola) . pe ee DOMINIQUE, C.; SYLVAIN, C; CARLO, C.; JEAN, G.; FRANCOIS, Ts PHILIPPE, B.; NIGEL, L. and OLIVIER, 5. Turbidite slope channels - where have they been and where are they going? 6 MAYALL, M. and STEWART, | ‘Subsurface lithology prediction in deep-water depositional systems - present and future 102 HADLERJACOBSEN, F; JOHNSON, S. D.; KRISTENSEN, J. B.; ASHTON, N. and LERVIK, K.S. Depositional model and architecture of the Congo submarine fan: insights into offshore ‘Angola turbiditic fields ae aati MORASH, A; VITTORI,J,; DOMINIQUE, C.; LOPEZ, M. and SAVOYE, B Seabed Morphologies and Recent turbidite architectural elements as interpreted from 3D seismic data - Sume implications for exploration and production of the deep offshore CHEIKH BENAN, A. O. A. and CAUQUIL, E. zal Conclusions... Photos Gallery nn.+ Tribute to Caddah \ my lb Luiz Fernando Guimaraes Caddah was a Petrobras geologist, an outstanding sedimentologist by speciality, and a dearly laved son and husband in his private life. Caddah, as he was affectionately known by his many friends, died tragically less than two years ago causing sentiments of great sadness and loss to his family, friends and coworkers. Caddah’s career was exceptionally productive. He graduated in geology at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro in 1986. He was dedicated to sedimentology and worked for seven years at the Laboratorty of Sedimentology of the Campos Basin and subsequently at the Stratigraphy and. Petroleum Systems Group at the Petrobras head offices in Rio de Janeiro for four years. He is credited with a long list of quality publications and Petrobras internal documents. He participated in several regional projects and studied dozens of turbidite systems of the Brazilian east-coast basins, and made an outstanding contribution to the understanding of deep-water depositional systems for which he was awarded a PhD. degree. His imagination for the development of new models to explain submarine processes was acute. Turbidites fascinated him. On occasions his mind seems to have assumed the embodiment of a submarine observer gently gliding over channels, levees, lobes and fringes On others, it assumed that of a time machine that could travel back to witness the deposition by gravity currents of the Carapeba, Marimba, Marlim, Caratinga, Barracuda, Albacora sand bodies, and so many other turbidite reservoirs of the Campos basin A pioneer in the description and interpretation of cores from the modem shelf and the deep- water Campos basin, he was the first to relate turbidity currents to voleanic activity in the Upper Cretaceous (Campos basin). Caddah was a specialist in ichnofacies, and an early proponent of the role of tidal currents asa transport mechanism along canyons during the Tertlarye He also” worked on shelf and deep- water sediments in the Santos and Foz do Amazonas basins. He left us too early, but in the short time he was among us, we shared smiles and moments of joy, planting the seeds of friendship, which will never die, His technical contribution will last foras long as our saudade. Saudade is a uniquely Portuguese word that cannot be adequately be translated into English or any other language for that matter, because it emanates from the deepest regions of the soul It would not surprise us if he were now floating in peace on a turbidity cloud Conveners August 2000ii Section Rodi Avila Medeiros History of interpretation of deep-water sandstones in Brazil nc.nnnnse DELLA FAVERA, J. C. Deep marine turbidite environments ... BOUMA, A. H. Turbidity current flow around variable topography .. KNELLER, 8. Groundwater discharge: in the Campos basin, Brazi AZAMBUJA FILHO, N. C. de; triggering mechanism for slope failure and gravity flow genesisHistory of interpretation of deep-water sandstones in Brazil DELLA FAVERA, J. C. - Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Extended Abstract Deep-water sandstones are the main reservoir rocks in the Brazilian basins. Their nature, interpreted initially as shallow-marine deposits, has been changing through time from turbidites to debris-flow and bottom-current deposits. Technical accounts exit in the unpublished files of Petrobras. Ludwig (1964) made the first mention of turbidites (specifically tempestites) in Brazil in the Paleozoic section (Devonian) of the intracratonic Amazonas basin. Fisher, Brown, Gama and Ojeda y Ojeda (1970) made the first comprehensive seismo- stratigraphic study in the Sergipe-Alagoas basin. They defined base-of-slope facies for the first time, and considered the reservoir rocks of the Guaricema oil field to be turbidite deposits. In the Recéncavo basin, Klein, de Mello and Della Favera (1972) interpreted lacustrine sandstones, derived from several gravitational-flow types. They tried-to explain the so-called "massive sandstone! in terms of a slurry flow, which started as slump andslide flows, passing toa debris flow anda slury fiow, and finally as a deposit that could migrateas a turbidity current from the delta front down to the basin troughs. The deep-water character of the Rec6ncavo lake had been noted previously by Fonseca and Della Févera in 1970, on the basis of some core descriptions and the comparison with the deposits found in some East African lakes. Subsequently, Carozzi, Tonseca and Aratijo (1976) described turbidite deposits in outcrop and from cores from the Recéncavo basin. Contrary to general opinion, deep-water sandstone units found in the first 30 wells of the Campos basin were interpreted for the first time by Della Favera, de Cesero, Beurlen and Troelsen, in the Cretaceous and Tertiary section in 1975. In spite of the abundant deep-water fauna (Rhabdammina fauna) in that section, associated with some ‘slope indicators’, such as red algal clast diamictite, these deposits had been described as deltaic or shallow-marine sand bodies by earlier interpreters. The reason for such an interpretation was the almost complete lack of the Bouma sequence and the predominance of subtly graded massive sandstone beds. Based on seismic information, that suggested deposition in channels, the interpretation was that they belonged to a confined turbidite model, Emiliano Mutt fulfilled the overall acceptance of the turbidite modelafter the confirmation, in 1976. Braga and Della Favera (1978) made a comprehensive seismic- stratigraphic study of nine continental-margin hasins, from Pelotas to the Faz do Amazonas, and linked turbidites to lowstands in sea level, according to the Vail's curve. Subsequently, the concept of deep-water sands became very popular among exploration geologists and those sandstones became the preferential targets for oil exploration in the continental-margin basins. However, in the Campos basin, the main concepts on deep- water deposition arose as a function of the large number of wells drilled. Therefore, the more significant steps in the history of interpretation of deep-water sands in Brazil took place mostly in that basin. Concerning depositional geometry, Lucchesi et al. (1980), tried to define the depositional geometry of the Espirito Santo turbidites using the Mutti-Ricci-Lucchi model. Barros et al (1984) defined two different types of turbidite accumulation in Campos basin: confined- sands (developed in Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary), and open-fan sands (Neogene). Appi, Agra and Pimentel (1984) explained the Namorado Sandstone as a braided-deep water channel deposit. Bruhn and Moraes (1989) interpreted some Espirito Santo and Almada deep-water sands as channel-levee complexes Barros et al. (1982) hypothesized the action of contour currents as a cause of massive sandstones, since they believed that the massive character was a product of bottom-current reworking of former Bouma sequence-bearing turbidite beds. Previously, Mutti had described contourites in the Foz do Amazonas basin after some ‘tidal sediments' with deep-water fauna. Fugita et al. (1991) and Souza Cruz and Appi (1991) also recognized the action of contour currents in the Tertiary section; later on, Souza Cruz and Appi (1999) described the Tertiary as a mixed deep-water system. Carminatti and Scarton (1991) pointed out bottom-current reworking irr Matlimn oil field. In the late nineteen eighties and nineties, Ph.D. and M.Sc. thesis written by Brazilians, mostly at foreign universities, dealt with deep-water sediments. Azambuja (1990) analyzed facies and sedimentary cyclicty in turbidite sequences in the Campos basin. Appi (1994) interpreted contour currents-derived fine-grained clastics as drift sediments and recognized the action of reworking of turbidites by bottom currents. Souza Cruz (1995) described the nature of some Neogene sand-bodies in the Campos basin and boeumierecen interpreted them as derived from reworking and deposition by the sub-bottom Antarctic current. Bruhn (1997) reiterated the channel- levee model for Espirito-Santo turbidites. Viana (1998) demonstrated the role of bottom currents in constructing sand deposits in upper slope settings and feeding submarine canyon heads both in the modern Campos basin and in the Upper Cretaceous of the Vocontian basin (Southeastern France), also pointing out their interplay with gravitational processes in deeper settings. Gomes (2000) recognized bottom currents as the main geological agent in Atlantic bathyal and abyssal environments in Tertiary sediments of the Brazilian northeastern margin. Presently, the Shanmugamis (1996) hypothesis of debris-flow as the main gravitational flow responsible for the deposition of massive sandstones in passive continental margins has been gaining the support of Brazilian interpreters. Azambuja, Appi, Bender and Penteado (2000) explained the primary deep-water sand accumulation as due to the onset of submarine canyons at the slope base, which started in fresh- water pressure-head outbursts during sea-level lowstands. These canyons developed from the slope base up to the shelf break might have captured coarse sediments either by direct fluvialsupply or by contribution from older sediments deposited throughout slope failure, Gravitational flows through the canyons would transport sands and gravels to slope or basin-floor fans by turbidity currents or more likely by debris flows. Although our knowledge has increased dramatically in recent years there are some problems pending on deep-water sandstones One of them, important for petroleum exploitation, is the depositional geometry of individual beds in the massive sandstone is still not completely understood. References Appi, C. J., Agra, J., and Pimentel, A. M., 1984. Estudos faciolégico dos arenitos do Campo de Namorado, Bacia de Campos, RJ Petrobras internal report. Appi, C.J., 1994. | sistemi deposizionali arenacei di mare profondo dell’Oligocene superiore e Miocene inferiore del Campo di Albacora (offshore brasiliano). Ph.D. thesis, Universita di Parma, Istituto di Geologia, Paleontologia de Parma- Italia, 1995. Azambuja Filho, N. C. de, 1990. The oligo- miocene turbidites and associated facies of the Campos Basin, offshore Brazil. Ph.D. thesis, Imperial College, Department of Geology, London. 456p. ilust. Azambuja Filho, N. C. de, Appi, C. J., Bender, A.A, and Penteado, H. L., 2000. Freshwater outflow as a triggering mechanism for slope failure and turbidites in the Campos Basin, Brazil. AAPG/SEPM Convention, 2000, New Orleans,LA. p. A8. Barros, M. C., Possato, S., Guardado, L. R., and Mutti, E., 1982. The eocene Carapebus sands, Campos Basin, brazilian offshore: an example of deep-sea fan turbidites winnowed by bottom currents. Petrobras internal report. Barros, M. C., Gueiros, E. A. C., Appi, C.J., Della Favera, J. C, and Freitas, L. C., 1984. Distribuigéo e modelo deposicional das areias Albo - Santonianas e Campo-Maestrichtianas da Bacia de Campos. Rio de Janeiro, Petrobras internal report. Braga, J. A. E., and Della Favera, J. C., 1978. Sequéncias deposicionais nas bacias brasileiras: determinacao, integracéo tegional e sua utilizagéo nas pesquisas de hidrocarbonetos. Rio de Janeiro, Petrobras internal report. Bruhn, C. H. L., 1997. Internal architecture and sedimentary evolution of coarse-grained, turbidite channel-levee complexes, Early Eocene Regéncia Canyon, Espirito Santo Basin, Brasil, Sedimentology, v.44, n.17-46, 1997. Bruhn, C. H. L., and Moraes, M. A. S., 1989. Turbiditos da Formagdo Urucutuca na Bacia de Almada, Bahia: um laboratério de campo para estudo de reservat6rios canalizados. Boletim de Geociéncias da Petrobras, v. 3, p 235-267, Carminatti, M., and Scarton, J. C., 1991 Sequence Stratigraphy of the Oligocene Turbidite Complex of the Campos Basin, Offshore Brazil: An Overview. In: WEIMER, P. & LINK, M. H. (EDS.). Seismic Facies and Sedimentary Processes of Submarine Fans and Turbidite Systems. New York, Springer- Verlag, 447p. Carozzi, A. V., Fonseca, J. R., and Araujo, M. B., 1976. New interpretation of Candeias field - Rec6ncavo Basin. Part |. Rio de Janeiro, Petrobras internal report. Della Favera, J. C., Cesero, P, and Beurlen, G., Troelsen, J. C. and Gomide, J., 1975. Projeto Carapebus. Rio de Janeiro, Petrobras internal report.Fisher, W. L., Gama Junior, E. G., and Ojeda Y Ojeda, H. A., 1973. Estratigrafia sismica e sistemas deposicionais da formacao Piacabucu. Aracaju, Congresso Brasileiro de Geologia, 27., v. 3, p. 123-133. Fonseca, J. R., and Della Favera, J. C., 1970. Resultados de observacées sedimentolégicas na seco Ihas Inferior/Candeias da Area Centro-Norte da Bacia do Recéncavo. Salvador, Petrobras internal report. Fugita, A. M., Appi, C. J., Azevedo, R. M. L., Becker, M., Ricci, Mesquita, A. C., and Sad, R., 1991. Estudo estratigrafico das seqiléncias e sistemas deposicionais do terciério da Bacia de Campos. Rio de Janeiro, Petrobras internal report. Gomes, P. O., 2000. Distensao Crustal, Implantacdo de Crosta Ocednica e Aspectos Evolutivos das Zonas de Fratura e da Sedimentacdo no Segmento Nordeste da Margem Continental Brasileira. Univ. do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, (M.Sc.thesis), 150 p. Klein, G. D., Melo, U., and Della Favera, J. C. Subaqueous Gravity Flows on the Front of Cretaceous Deltas, Recéncavo Basin, Brazil GSA, Bull., v.83, p. 1469-1492 Ludwig, G.,1964. Nova diviséo estratigrafica e correlacao faciolégica por meio de pequenas estruturas internas, dos sedimentos silurianos ¢ devonianos na Bacia do Médio Amazonas. Belém, Petrobras internal report. Lucchesi, C.F, Beraldo, W. L., Appi, C. J., Araripe, P.T., Antunes, R. L., and Mutti, E., 1980. Plataforma continental do Espirito Santo: mapeamento sismoestratigrafico de leques submarinos. Macaé, Petrobras internal report. Muti, E., 1976. Conclusions in a preliminary way for the Campos and Sergipe/Alagoas Basins. Rio de Janeiro, Petrobras internal report. Shanmugam, G., 1996. High-density Turbidity Currents: Are they sandy debris-flows? Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 66, No. 1,p.2-10. Souza-Cruz, C. £., 1995. Estratigrafia e sedimentacéo de éguas profundas do neogeno da Bacia de Campos, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Ph.D. thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, 186 p. Souza-Cruz, C. E., and Appi, C. J., 1991. in Turbidite Sandstones - by Emiliano Mutti - Parma - Italia Agip S. 275p. ea Souza-Cruz, C. E., and Appi, C. J., 1999. Distribution pattern and sedimentation of the neogene deep water section in the Campos Basin offshore Brazil. Rio de Janeiro, Sociedade Brasileira de Geofisica, Congreso Internacional, 6. 3p., CDROM. Viana, A. R., 1998. Le réle et l'enregistrement des courants océaniques dans les dépéts sableux de marges continentales: la marge sud-est brésilienne. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Bordeaux |, Bordeaux, France, 348p.eee eae Deep marine turbidite environments BOUMA, A. H., Department of Geology and Geophysics, Loui Louisiana 70803, USA. The past decade has experienced a major advance in the exploration and development of turbidite systems in the offshore area Specifically the developments in seismic acquisition and processing, and in drilling/ production technology, have resulted in moving to deeper waters while keeping costs down. However, advances in the understanding of turbidite systems with regard to transport characteristics, depositional architecture and reservoir characterization, have lagged behind. Relatively small number of applicable studies have been published and few of those studies deal with large outcrops because such are not common. However, those few great ones should be used to better understand the complexity of the deep marine siliciclastic deposits. To date many good reservoirs have been overlooked because ofa lack of information ina State University, Baton Rouge, on thin beds which are below seismic resolution, or can not be detected or properly interpreted by standard well logs. Itis necessary to have an understanding about the processes that move the sands, as well as he internal characterization of the sandstone bodies with regard to connectivity and relative volumes. Many geological and other forces have a direct effect on the variable complexity of transport and deposition in deep water. The four major forces are tectonics, climate, sediment and sea level fluctuations. Each of these forces has subgroups and their variable interactions lead toa large number of depositional products. Therefore, a small number of end members (models) are recommended with the expectation that an investigator will use acceptable parts of selected models, complement that with new data from the area of interest, and produces a workable model for that area/field that fits the objectives of the study. In order to reach such a goal, a team of investigators with different expertise will be required, willing to approach the problem partly ‘or completely along lines used to detine the end members. Good interaction between team members will result in developing a better reservoir and improving economics. This paper is limited to the discussion about the depositional aspects of two siliciclastic end members that likely envelop most ot the common turbidite deposits. Those two examples are coarse-grained, canyon-fed and fine-grained, delta-fed submarine fans/turbidite systems. Through time both can be found in the same area.The coarse-grained or sand-rich model was first. introduced by Normark (1970) for Quaternary deposits off California and Baja California. Independently a detailed model was intraduced by Mutti and Ricci Lucchi in 1972, based on the Tertiary turbidites in Italy. Since then more models on sand-rich fans appeared in the literature dealing with specific locations or sediment types. The coarse-grained model is typical for active margins, although other models can be found there also. It is characterized by a sediment source that is not too far from the coastline, where relative steep fluvial gradients can transport relatively coarse sediment across a narrow coastal plain. Such a coastal plain will not permit common and frequent lateral switching of deltas. Often there is a lack of space to construct complete deltas. Therefore much of the fluvial sediment passes the coastline from where it will be moved laterally by longshore drift. The shelf is narrow and a swale in the shelf floor can cause the sediment to move across the shelf. A coastal promontory can also deflect the sediment to deeper water. The cross-shelf transport will erode a canyon head, Sediment will accumulate in the upper canyon till instability is reached and slumping will result, The slump will move towards the basin. Commonly the transport changes into a high-density turbidity current. This type of tectonic setting and sediment transport is also known as a canyon-fed system. The receiving basin for those sand-rich turbidity currents normally is relatively small. The fan will gradually prograde into the basin. The updip part of the basin commonly is characterized by many bifurcating channels that become less deep in downdip direction, and deposition will change from channelized into sheet sand/depositional lobe deposition. Both the thickness of the fan and the net-to-gross percentage of the deposits will decrease in downdip direction. Relative sea level fluctuations have @ minor influence on the sediment transport. Sea level stillstands will cover the deposited fan with finer mudstones. If the shelf is very narrow and sand can be transported easily o the shelfbreak, the canyon may become filled with sand and possible coarser material. The other end member is the fine-grained turbidite system, also known as the mud-rich system because the mudstones between the individual fans are thick and comprised of fine- silts and finer sediment, The individual fans are sand-rich, constructed primarily from very-fine and fine sand. The sediment-generating BOUMA. AH mountains were far from the coast, resulting in low-gradient fluvial gradients that often end with a large deltaic complex on a broad coastal plain. During high sea-level stands and still stands, sands become entrapped in distributary mouth bars and can go into longshore drift building barrier islands and beaches. The shelf is wide and no sand will cross it during high stands. Once sea level starts to drop, either globally or tectonically induced, the active deltaic distributary will continue to be the active channel. It will extend across the shelf and can change into an incised valley once the valley mouth gets below shelfbreak depth. With or without a major incised valley, the sand will be transported to the downdip side of the distributary channel, Instability will result when much of the fine-grained sand is deposited and failure will follow. An initial slump will move across the upper part of the slope and commonly transfers into a debris flow and later into a high-density turbidity current. The initial slump will scour a major valley across the slope. The gradient of the slope will accelerate the transport and the resulting valley can be 10-20 km wide at its base. Once the flow enters the area of the base-of-slope, the velocity will decrease and deposition may commence. At the base-of-slope the deposits will form a set of intersecting channels, each much narrower@ ceo imrne date enironments than the width of the canyon mouth at the base- of-slope (Fig.1). Those channels form a complex, filled with sand, channel lag deposits, slump material, sections of levee deposits, ete. The channel fills are wide compared to depth and a width/depth ratio of 1:40 or 1:80 is not uncommon, Once the basin floor is reached, the confinement of the canyon is lost and a leveed channel with wide overbank deposits will be constructed. Downdip the channels gradually become shallower and often somewhat narrower. Bifurcation will take place with only one distributary being active at a given time. Gradually the effective depth of the distributary becomes less than the height of the front of the turbidity current and the sands cannot be retained anymore, Overflowing of the head of the current results and the depositional style changes to sheet sand/depositional lobe. Switching of the channels is often the result of sudden climatic changes in the sediment source area, which causes changes in the intensity of subaerial transport. Initial deposition will take place during a relative sea level lowering, major deposition during the initial rise in sea level, and the construction of the thick mudstones thereafter. The chance that the canyon becomes filled with sand is likely zero, Figure 1 shows a model with schematic cores from the three depositional types, typical for this type of turbidite system: 1) base-of-slope deposition resulting in a channel complex, 2) the middle fan with leveed channel and wide overbank deposits, and 3) an outer fan with distributary channels transferring into sheet deposits. The levees of the midfan channel are thin bedded, comprised of thin sandstones alternating with thin mudstones. These levee sands are the result of overflow of the body of ‘the turbidity currents that move through the channels. Once they overflow the transport changes from turbulent flow to traction flow, at least the bottom parts of the overflowing current. That results in very clean, well-sorted sandstones. Studies on the Permian Tanqua Karoo fans in South Africa and examples from the Gulf of Mexico show that the permeabilities are very high and can exceed one Darcy. Darling and Sneider (1992) call those deposits low-resistivty, low-contrast, thin-bedded sandstones. Those deposits are commonly overlooked as great reservoirs because they are not recognized on standard well logs. The variety in deposition, resulting from effective transport to the basin, produces a complex scenario of net-to-gross percentages and sand- body geometries. This type of transport is also known as a bypassing transport system. The net- to-gross percentage of the channel sands on the base-of-slope zone is high but the permeability of ‘the sands somewhat low. because the lurbulerl flows have not differentiated themselves yet into fine grains and coarser grains. The channel fils on the middle fan are much cleaner and have a high Net-to-gross percentage. Connectivity is very good. The wide overbank deposits show a decrease in layer thickness and sand content away from the channel. The distributary channels on. thelower fan typically are too small for commercial interests and to small to be well observed on seismic displays. The sheet deposits, on the other hand, comprise the largest volume of the fan. The individual sheets are oblong and seem to twist as paleocurrent measurements of the Tanqua Karoo deposits indicate. Nevertheless the connectivity is good. Initial calculations from the youngest fan of the Mississippi Fan complex suggest the following percentages: leveed channels on the middle fan have 3-8% of the total sand, the distributary channels on the lower fan may have between 1 and 4%, and the sheet sands a much as 88%. These estimates can be significantly different because of a lack of good seismic coverage and good sand/clay ratios from the cores. Nevertheless the trend is obvious.Studies from several areas, mainly the upper Pleistocene Mississippi Fan in the Gulf of Mexico, the Pennsylvanian Jackfork Group in Arkansas, and the tectonically non-tilted Permian Tanqua Karoo fans in South Africa, provided the data to develop the above-described model (Fig. 1). The overall architecture can be best explained by efficient transport. Progradation of individual fans seems to be rapid, followed by lateral switching, resulting in an internally complex set of deposits. Seafloor compensation is common and variations in size of succeeding layers may reflect climatic changes in the sediment source area, causing changes in the effectiveness of fluvial transport, or additional slumping of slump scars in the head of the canyon, caused by the initial slump. When dealing with glacio-eustatically controlled sea level fluctuations the coarse- grained fans will be somewhat influenced by a low sea-level stand. The fine-grained fans are strongly dependent on such fluctuations and a relative lowering is necessary to move the sediment from the shelf area across the slope to the basin. The influence of climate has always been underrated. It is proposed that such changes not only influence advance and retreat of glacial ice but also dictate the type and strength of fluvial flow. It is only during transgressive systems tract periods that rivers are the strongest and the typical highstand hypopycnal fluvial transport may occasionally or frequently change to hyperpycnal flow conditions. If the density of the turbulent fluvial flows exceeds that of the basin water, the turbidity currents may bypass the entire shelf and run straight across the slope into the basin. soa. @ The difference in grain size and the efficiency of transport causes the two major end members to be different in net-to-gross percentages and in their sand body distribution and geometries and their reservoir characteristics. Combining subsurface information with excellent outcrops, therefore, provides an excellent start to better understand the reservoir characteristics of any field Figure 1 CONPENSATIONAL SAGAN Block ciagram, cross sections and generalized cores showing the madel of 2 fine-grained sulpmarine fan system with ts threifferent depositional types channel complexatthe base Cofslopa, leveed channel with extensive overbank areas onthe middle fon, and distibutary channels with depositional lobes sheet sands) onthe lower fan (after Bouma, 2000),Qa eee References Bouma, A. H., 2000. Fine-grained, mud-rich turbidite systems: model and comparison with coarse-grained, sand-rich systems. In: Bouma, AH. and Stone C.G., eds., Fine- Grained Turbidite Systems. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 72 / Society for Sedimentary Geology Special Publication No. 68, p. 9 20 Darling, H. L., and Sneider, R. M., 1992. Production of low-resistivity, low-contrast reservoirs, offshore Gulf of Mexico basin. Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 42, p. 73-88. Mutti, E., and Ricci Lucchi, ., 1972. Le torbiditi dell: Appennino settentrionale: introduzione all! analisi de facies: Memorie della Societa Geologia Italiana, v. 11, p. 161-199. Normark, W. R., 1970. Growth patterns of deep- sea fans. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v.54, p. 2170-2195.Turbidity current flow around variable topography KNELLER, B. - Institute for Crustal Studies, University of California at Santa Barbara - CA 93101, USA. Turbidity current flow over topography can be viewed at two scales. On the larger scale, one can consider essentially two-dimensional flow down a variable slope, taking a depth-averaged view of the flows, using simple hydraulic equations. While such approaches cannot give a detailed or accurate model of deposit properties or distributions, they can be useful in giving a general idea of how deposits may vary down a slope, and provide a simple algorithm for the change in mean grain-size on a slope profile. Simple slope algorithm Simple hydraulic models require expressions that, (1) relate the strength of the current to its thickness and density, and the gradient of the slope, and (2) relate the grain-size of material falling to the bed to the strength of the current. For the first of these we can use the following expression; U. = g'hS a where Us is the shear velocity of the current, A is the thickness of the current, S is the slope (tangent of the gradient) g is the acceleration due to gravity, g’ is the reduced gravity, given by; (oo fumem =g lau as Q) g where pyis the density of the current, and p, is. the density of the ambient fluid (generally seawater). For the second relationship, we can use a suspension criterion; where U, is the settling velocity of the grains Erosion will occur on the slope wherever Jg'hS = U2 > Us? where Up" is the settling velocity of grains on the bed (for example on the floor of a canyon or slope channel), and U3**is the settling velocity of the largest grains in suspension. By pass of the slope will occur where U2? > J/g’hS > Us? and deposition will occur where U2? > US > /gihS- This relationship illustrates several points about deposition on the slope. Firstly, the grain-size {as reflected in settling velocity) of deposit on a slope (e.g., within a channel) is a function of the gradient. U, = /ghS ®© Wid current iow around variable topography Secondly, it is impossible to generalize concerning the equilibrium gradient or profile of a slope, as it will vary with the density, thickness and available maximum grain-size of sediment: and these are likely to vary both with position and with time, ¢.g,, through a sea-level cycle. Thus changes in flow properties are likely to lead to regrading of the slope, with consequent deposition or erosion. Thirdly, the distinction between ‘slope accommodation’ and ‘ponded accommodation’ depends upon whether the equilibrium gradient for the deposits of the flows currently passing down the slope is greater than or less than the gradient of the healed slope. Where a broad spectrum of flow magnitudes and grain sizes may occur, the thickness of a deposit may be given, asa first approximation, by the rate of change of gradient (the second derivative of the bathymetry) in the direction of flow. More complex models In detail, the behaviour of a turbidity current around topography depends on a number of factors, especially: * its density and density stratification; * its forward velocity; + the ratio of the height of the topography, H, to the flow thickness, d; (this ratio, H/d, is called the dimensionless obstacle height, H.). Internal density stratification is a function of the way sediment is suspended. Sediment grains that are close to their suspension threshold are strongly concentrated towards the bed, while thuse that are well below their threshold are more uniformly distributed with depth in the flow. Consequently flows that are depositing sediment (or are close to doing so) are inevitably strongly density stratified, and have the coarser grains suspended close to the bed. Upstream of topography For two-dimensional topography (i.e., roughly perpendicular to the current and laterally continuous), the current is completely blocked when the dimensionless obstacle height H. is greater than about 2.5, that is to say none of it gets over the top (except possibly an initial finite- volume 'splash' if Hx is less than about 4 ur 5). The effect of blocking is to generate a bore (a moving hydraulic jump) upstream of the obstacle, which migrates upstream and forms a ‘reflection’ (Edwards et al., 1994). Where the dimensionless obstacle height is <2, part of the forward current continues over the obstacle. It is in these situations that flow stratification plays a significant part, and the behaviour of the current is largely a function of @ parameter known as the internal Froude number, often defined as: Fan ey where U is the current velocity, H is a characteristic length scale (usually the obstacle height), and N is known as the buoyancy frequency, which is given by: apy oy N=|g<¥ Pp ”where %, is the density gradient, p is the mean density and g is the acceleration due to gravity, N is actually the frequency of the gravity waves that can be produced on the density stratification For three-dimensional obstacles, the proportion of fluid that flows over the obstacle depends on Fi; for F;<0.5 all the fluid below a certain depth (the dividing streamline) moves around the barrier, while that above this level moves over it in an essentially two-dimensional pattern (Hunt and Snyder, 1980). Where the flow is blocked (by high topography), flow below the dividing streamline is ‘deflected’, whereas that above it may collapse back down the slope to produce reflections. For Fi>0.5, fluid atall levels moves over the obstacle, and where there are gaps between obstacles, only the fluid opposite the gap moves throught, ie. thereis effectively no deflection (Baines, 1979). Downstream of topography Behaviour downstream of topography is similarly determined by Fj. In the simplest case (where where the obstacle is very small, stratification weak and/or flow is rapid), streamlines are simply divergent over the downstream side of the topography (Long, 1955). At lower Fj, flow separation occurs downstream of the obstacle, such as occurs downstream of ripples and dunes (Lawrence, 1993); this may occur with all kinds of downstream-facing steps including scours and large bedforms such as dunes as gravel waves. Atstill lower F, larger scales of topography and density gradients, lower velocities), lee waves ‘occur downstream of the obstacle, similar to those that form in the atmosphere downwind of hills (Castro and Snyder, 1993). These may be responsible for the formation of large fine- grained sediment waves (100s to 1000s metres wavelength) that occur in many slope and base of slope settings (Flood, 1988). ‘Supercritical flow and hydraullc Jumps In the extreme case (at the largest scales of ‘topography, lowest values of Fj), there is a hydraulic jump downstream of the obstacle, marking the transition from supercritical to subcritical flow. Supercritical flow is indicated by a densiometric Froude number greater than 1, meaning that the flow is faster then the celerity of gravity waves on the interface. Conventionally, densiometric Froude numbers for turbidity currents are calculated using depth- averaged values for velocity and density. For many turbidity currents this is meaningless, given their density and velocity profiles; some levels in the current may be supercritical while others are subcritical. A more meaningful approach is to calculate an internal Froude number ata given height in the flow taking as H the flow depth in (equation 6) (effectively the ratio of the local flow velocity to the celerty of intemal waves ‘on the stratification at that height); supercritical flow occurs when Fj exceeds x (Turner, 1973). Implications for sedimentation Where turbidity currents interact with large obstacles and are partially or wholly blocked, they are likely to experience a large and rapid decrease in velocity, and sedimentation will ‘occur on the upstream side of the obstacle. Where the current is strongly stratified at the scale of the topography, the lowest, densest part of the current may be effectively blocked by the topography but, in three-dimensional situations, these denser portions of the current may be deflected parallel to the slope before or while depositing. If some of the flow surmounts the topography, deposition may also occur in the lee of the obstacle (especially if there is a downstream hydraulic jump), and the stratification of the current may result in a grain- size difference between the deposits upstream© Wrediy curent ow around variabletoposraphy (coarser) and downstream (finer) of the topography. Within submarine channels, Fj determines the amount of overspill that occurs at channel bends, and also whether the overspilled portion of the flows produces sediment waves on the levees. References Baines, P. G., 1979. Observations of stratified flow past three-dimensional barriers. J Geophys. Res., 84, 7834-7838. Castro, |. P. and Snyder W. H.,1993. Experiments on wave breaking in stratified flow over obstacles. J. Fluid Mech., 255, 195-211. Edwards, D. A, Leeder, M.R., Best, J. L. and Pantin, H. M., 1994. On experimental reflected density currents and the interpretation of certain turbidites. Sedimentology, 41, 437-461. Flood, R. D.,1988. A lee wave model for deep- sea mudwave activity. Deep Sea Res., 35, 973-983. Hunt, J. C. R., and Snyder, W. H.,1980. Experiments on stably and neutrally stratified flow over a model three-dimensional hill. . Fluid Mech., 96, 671-704, Lawrence, G. A.,1993. The hydraulics of steady two-layer flow over a fixed obstacle. J. Fluid Mech., 254, 605-633 Turner, J. S.,1973. Buoyancy Effects in Fluids. Cambridge Monographs on Mechanics and Applied Mathematics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 368 pp.Groundwater discharge: a triggering mechanism for slope failure and gravity flow genesis in the Campos basin, Brazil AZAMBUJA FILHO, N.C. de; APPI, C. J.; BENDER, A. and PENTEADO, H. Petrobras Research Centre, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ABSTRACT Sonar-based bathymetric maps and fluid flow modeling were used to develop the hypothesis that groundwater discharge on the continental slope of the Campos basin may possibly be a triggering mechanism for the observed high= frequency slope failures and the resulting gravity flows, ‘On the modern upper slope of the offshore part of the Campos basin there are several canyons, ravines and mass waste slope features of variable distribution and magnitude. The origin of these features was attributed to shelf drainage during low sea level stands in the recent past. However, independent studies on the biodegradation of oil suggested very significant groundwater (freshwater/connate water) discharge on the slope giving rise to the working hypothesis that not all the canyons and ravines had a common origin in shelf paleodrainage, and that the groundwater discharge may be in some way connected to the observed physical features of canyon formation and slumping. The role of groundwater discharge in slope environments does not seem to have been fully considered in the literature as a triggering mechanism for slope failure and turbidite genesis, and it is probable that a reevaluation of such deposits elsewhere in the world could lead to conclusions similar to ours in some cases. INTRODUCTION There are several hypotheses relating triggering mechanisms to explain the genesis of turbidite and mass flow deposits on continental slopes all of which have been amply described in the literature. However, geochemical studies of oils and formational waters from the Campos basin revealed intense biodegradition and low salinities, respectively (Cerqueira et al., 1992; Ferreira et al,, 1992). This led us to suspect that fresh water heads could reach regions far offshore, and that the formation of these gravity deposits may have been triggered by groundwater discharge, a mechanism that may have been overlooked (Azambuja Filho et al,, 2000) We examine the hypothesis that groundwater discharge on the continental slope is related mainly to the lowering of the sea level and that the discharge was stratigraphically controlleder re a apne. et between confining beds. This discharge in turn led to ravinement and thence to the mechanical instability on slopes with consequent failure and the genesis of gravity deposits including turbidite beds. Our work is supported by a geological section developed from seismic sections, well data, and sonar map of the seabed of the Campos basin. A bidimensional mesh generated from the interpreted stratigraphic units and the petrophysical properties of the sediments using the Temispack software were used to simulate several processes including the sedimentation rates, sea level variations and rates of groundwater flow. GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND DATABASE The Campos basin is situated on the continental shelf of the State of Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil. The Campos basin is bounded by the Vitéria and Cabo Frio arches to the N and S, respectively, and its western margin onlaps the Precambrian crystalline basement exposed near the City of Campos. The Campos basin extends eastwards into the abyssal plain where its limit has been defined on the basis of economic interest only. The basin covers an area of 30 000 km’ as far as the 200 m isobath, beyond which there are a further 70 000 km’ if the seaward limit is placed at the 3400 m isobath. On the modern upper slope of the Campos basin there are several canyons and mass- waste slope features, some of which may be interpreted to have formed in the recent past by paleodrainage during low sea level stands (Figure 1). However, other such features cannot reasonably be attributed to paleodrainage (Figure 2). The progradational feature of the modern slope observed in this region is a consequence of the very high sedimentary influx from the Paraiba do Sul River. This sedimentary load has caused intense halokinesis of the underlying Aptian salt beds generating topographic features typical of salt tectonics (Figures 1 and 2) During the 1990s, Petrobras carried out extensive sonar surveys (42 000 km’), piston core sampling for biostratigraphic and paleoecological studies (Machado et al. 1998 and 2002 and Viana, A. R., 2001), which showed that the Almirante Camara Canyon and its associated turbidite system were active during the last low sea level stand. Figure 1 Bathymetric map ofthe Campos basin. Note the presence ofthe coastal, sh slope and basin areas. Te coastal area showsthemountainsof he Ser do Mar ‘ange and the adjacent uve dea plain ofthe Para do Sul iver: The margin of the shelf ara les parallel othe costal fare, Te siope atea shows a varlabe stabution of canyonsand ranarents ‘cording to Machado etal, (1998 and Ea features 2002) the Paraiba. do Sul River was ‘connected to the Almirante Camara ‘Cnyon ding thelastlow sea level stand ‘Atbasaoftheslope there ocurhaoknet features principally to the E of the Almirante Cimara Canyon. The cred area's shownin detadin Figure 2.Figure 3 Datallofthe ccedareashowninFgure?, highlighting the toposraphy “nd the postion ofa turbdite fan. The small cre highlights 3 ‘entue resembling a mud voieano (sonar image) Figure 4 Figure 2 Slope morphology from sonar data showing the to main {pes of canyons And ravinement, The fst ype'ssmisr to the Almirante Camara Canyon that reaches the shel, whereas the second {ype's confined tothe lower part ofthe slope (see aro). The cele are (aso Shown n Figure) highghts the presence (of two topographic types: sal apres nd adjacent lows that cted as themain pathways forthe gravity lows during the Tost low sea level stand Detalof the turbicite fan shown in Figure 3. Thelightee fareas show the preence of larger amounts of sand (eonarimage). AZAMBUJA FILHO, N. C. de; APPI, C. J.; BENDER, A. and PENTEADO, H. (i Modern canyons, ravinements, debris flows, turbidite systems and other features are very easily delimited on the 3-D sonar maps (Figures 2, 3 and 4), Canyon-like features may be divided into two types or classes: those that extend from the outer shelf across the shelf-break to the middle of the slope, and those that do not extend across the shelf- break and are only present on the slope below the shelf edge (Figure 2). The former type, such as the Almirante Camara Canyon, may be attributed to shelf drainage in the recent past. The latter type is characteristcally a series of ravinement features that ‘extend upwards onlyas faras the middle of the slope. These two types are clearly different with respect to their genesis, magnitude and distribution frequency, and their respective effects on the genesis and development of turbidite systems may differ as well The physiographic setting of the Almirante Camara turbidite system is shown in Figures 1 to 4 Seismic Section A (Figures 5 and 6) shows the progradational features of the slope where the main unconformities and sedimentary sequences have been separated, and tied to data from a nearby exploration well. The presence of chaotic facies within the sequences is indicative of multiple episodes of turbidite and diamictite deposition. These depositional episodes occurred from the Tertiary up the last glacial epoch as has been confirmed by piston coring (Figure 7). Over the past 11 000 years (at least) the sedimentation has been mainly pelagic.@D scouncviater discharge: a triggering mechanism for slope failure and gravity flow genesis in the Campos basin, Brazil ran PHoTo _ GRAINSIZE en Ea ‘NannofossitForms ooze ‘CARBONATE RICH MUDS Figure 5 Bathymetric map showing the ‘main physiographic divisions (Platiorm slope, shelf-break and Basin) and the poston of the different types of canyons and. ‘avinements, Also note the Doston of Seismic Section A Intraformational Conglomerates (Debris Flow) Carbonate Rich Muds Diamictite igure 7 Piston core sample showing the typical damvctite facies found at the base ofthe tone, Figure 6 Interpreted Seismic Section A, highlighting the main sequences and associated chaotic faces, The lowermost mapped seismic efector ile) marks the base the Aptian evaporite sequence rated to the at dapirs, the postion of which Shown in Figures 1,2 and 3INTERPRETATION AND MODELING Objective Our main intention is to evaluate the impact of ‘groundwater discharge on slope stability during low sea level stands. We have not modeled all known Tertiary sea-level fluctuations, but rather we have chosen to restrict ourselves to the final three main sea-level oscillations. Prior to modeling the sedimentary units were restured lo their original positions by using the appropriate paleobathymetry values and decompacted isopachs. Ancient rock permeabilities were estimated by using the Kozeny-Karman Law. Boundary conditions for pressure and water flows were defined: as follows: 1 the lateral boundaries were opened all the time and with no gradients; 2- the upper boundary is opened for water flow. During sea level falls, hydraulic heads increase proportionally to the height of the rock units exposed; 3- the lower boundary is closed for water flow and it was defined as the base of the Tertiary section. For the purpose of this study it had no practical effect. The sediments on the platform and slope of the Brazilian continental margin, and specifically the Campos basin, extend in age from the Miocene to the Holocene. These sediments consist of beds of shelf sands, carbonate, mudstone, and slope mudstone, marlstone, diamictite and turbiditic sandstone. To simplify the modeled geological section developed from the data related to Seismic Section A we have separated the sediments into two main groups based on general lithological characteristics: one group consisting of highly permeable sandstone beds related to permeable unconformity surfaces, and the second group Figure 8 [RZANIBUIA FILHO, N.C. de; APP, C.1; BENDER, A and PENTEADO, H. @®) consisting of essentially impermeable beds of mudstone and maristone related to impermeable flooding surfaces, representing the most common facies-type found on the slope. See Figure 8. Sandstone beds with the greater permeability values occur near the present-day slope, for which porosities of 40% and horizontal permeability values of 1 Darcy were assigned. The vertical permeability values were taken to be one order of magnitude lower than the horizontal ones (Figure 8). The more abundant less permeable sandstone units were arbitrarily assigned horizontal and vertical permeability values equal to 7.5% of 1 Darcy. | “PRESENT SEA LEVEL PRESENT Me) Medel geological section based on data from Seismic Section A inating the man ithological units and unconformties. The vertical profile shown in detalin Figure,eee ee ee Results. The water velocity profile across the slope corresponds to the restored geological section at ca. 0.1 Ma (Figure 9). The water velocity profile shows that the large water velocities existing within the section (1000 to 4000 m/ Ma) are related to permeable layers. As might be expected, the largest water velocity (~18 000 m/Ma) occurs in highly permeable sandstone beds confined between fine-grained sediments, indicating that the mechanical compaction process and hydraulic head, related to the fall in sea level and high sedimentation rate, may also induce significantly large water velocities towards the slope During the low sea level stand at 0.2 Ma, the pressure contour values reached 3 km (up to 5 km) for each 1000 m of sediment in the section. This is to say that the pressure increases in the section were due to the high sedimentation rate; whereas pressure increases in the platform region were due to falls in the sea level (Figure 10). Therefore, during sea level falls driving forces are created that are able to cause the migration of meteoric/connate water from the platform to the slope, provided a permeable zone connects them. The modeled geological section shown in Figure 11 was restored to a low sea level stand at 0.43 Ma. Arrows forming a clear pattern reflecting the horizontal gradient that developed when the platform was exposed, show the water flow direction. Gradients control the fluid migration directed offshore, and become more vertical towards the slope, indicating that the slope provides a natural exit for water under pressure. Pressure gradients may also have forced water to migrate to the deeper parts of the basin to zones lying at a depth of 5 km, and as far as 15 to 25 km from the shoreline at 0.43 Ma. ‘ The geological section shown in Figure 12 was restored to a high sea level stand at 0.6 Ma, Arrows that form a clear pattern reflecting gradients resulting from sedimentation and compaction on the platform show the water migration during high stands. Pressure gradients may also force water to migrate to the deeper parts of the basin, but these are much less intense than during low sea level stands. The geological section shown in Figure 13 was restored to a low sea level stand at 1.64 Ma ‘Arrows that form a clear pattern reflect the horizontal gradients resulting from the exposure Espadart- well Log -Water True Flow = Ma km71.83- (nan) ‘Water True Flow in m/Ma Figure 3 Profile showing simulated water velocities at pant {the positon of which is shown in Figure) inthe slope during a low sea level stand at 0.1 Ma Ae ‘expected the largest water velocities occur within the permeable Sandstone inten “jo000 "12000." 14000” 16000Figure 10 Modeled geological section restored to lw sea level standat 0.2 Main which arows india the water migration pattern Note thatthe main migration direction towards the offshore and that onthe slope water migration i tssentialy vertical e shown by the straws of the platform. These gradients are responsible forthe fluid migration directed offshore, indicating that the slope provides a natural exit for water reaching zones situated at a depth of 1 km from the sea level and 25 km from the shoreline The presence of the permeable layers extending from the shelf to the slope is important and has implications for the slope stability in the modeled geological section. These layers formed preferential pathways for the migration of connate water from adjacent fine-grained sediments as well as for meteoric water from the platform. Figures 11, 12 and 13 also show that the permeable layers are not only able to act as conduits to offshore regions, but more importantly, they can focus flow lines on the slope, thus forming a potential Figure 11 mechanism for a local increase in pore pressure leading to potential mechanical instability of the slope sediments, The concentration of vertical arrows from near the offshore end of the permeable layers can be seen at between 30 and 40 km from the left-hand boundary of the section. Pore pressure in marginal sedimentary basins may be affected either by high sedimentation rates or by sub-aerial exposure of the platform rocks during sea-level falls, both of which produce pressure fields with different distributions and magnitudes across the basin. High sedimentation rates were especially important at ca. 0.8 Ma when the pore pressure increased across a wide area situated approximately on the slope under 1000 m of overlying sediment. Similar observations of high AZAMBUIA FILHO, NC. de; APP. C.J; BENDER, A and PENTEADO, H. @) Modeled geological section restored to low sea evel stand a 0.43 Ma inihich arrows indicate the water migration pattern. Note thatthe main migration directo s towards the offshore, and that there occur two areas Of row ‘onceiration associated with sand pinch uts at 34 and 42 km. pore pressures due to high sedimentation rates, in the New Jersey continental slope, were also reported by Dugan and Flemings (2000). This is a very different pressure pattern to the one induced by falls in ea level. During the periods of low sea level, hydraulic head values in the platform sediments were equally high from the top to the base of the sedimentary sequence, forming lateral gradients that decrease towards the slope. Groundwater discharge in the slope is a complex issue that depends on several factors. Water flow towards the slope is possible provided there are long sections of permeable sediments across the section, and that a driving mechanism, caused by the lowering of the sea level, is present{@®