WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP

Provides two way communication services to stationary or near stationary users within a small
service area.
Loop means a circuit connecting subscriber telephone set with the terminating equipment at a
central office.
Trunk starting from central office is broken into several smaller bundles.
These circuits are eventually separated into drops for individual subscribers.
Cost dominated by drops on end-user side Expensive last mile.
Central office first point of traffic concentration especially for older installations.
Newer installations connect residential neighborhoods or businesses , using statistical
multiplexers to concentrate traffic
Last few hundred yards of wiring from residence/subscriber to multiplexer , the local loop , is
always dedicated.
WLL advantages over wireline local loop:
o Ease of installation and deployment installation of expensive copper cables can be
avoided.
o Concentration of resources
o Lower network maintenance, management and operating costs.
o Can be rapidly deployed, lower deployment costs
o Can be easily extended.
o Distance insensitive up to a threshold.
o Eliminated wires, poles, ducts in wireline n/w.
o Speeds installation process
o High BW providing video, high speed internet access.
WLL disadvantages
o More costly due to need for research and development
o Not been tested for reliability and repair costs
o Wireless data susceptible to interception, less security
o Low customer accessibility
o Certain technology not available in all areas

WLL ARCHITECTURE

Simplified version of TR-45 model for WLL

3 major components:
WANU
WASU
SF

WANU WIRELESS ACCESS NETWORK UNIT

Consists of
several base station transceivers or radio ports
Radio port control unit RPCU
Access manager AM
HLR

Provides
Authentication
Air interface privacy
Radio resource management
Over the air registration of subscriber units
Operation and maintenance OAM
Routing, billing and switching functions
Protocol conversion and transcoding of voice and data
Interworking function IWF- may be provided to support voice band

TR-45 model combines RP and RPCU into one element, WANU. Not always true though.

WASU- WIRELESS ACCESS SUBSCRIBER UNIT

Air interface UWLL towards network GSM,IS-136,PACS,AMPS
Traditional interface TWLL towards subscriber RJ11,RJ45
Protocol conversion
Authentication
Transcoding
OAM and signaling functions
Local power supply
Modem may be used to support voice band data to send analog signals like data and fax to IWF.

SF SWITCHING FUNCTION
Associated with a switch, that can be digital, with or without Advanced Intelligent Network-
AIN- capability.
Can be an ISDN switch else an MSC.
WANU and SF lease line, cable, microwave - speed and flexibility advantage, not consider
right of way, but need to consider frequency availability, tower height, , antenna size ,future
obstructions.
Standard between WANU and SF
ISDN-BRI
IS 634 , extension to GSM A interace.
 IS 635, an ISDN based A interface.
Bellcore GR303, a multi T1 interface to a digital switch.
ITU v5.1 / 5.2

WLL TECHNOLOGIES

1. SATELLITE BASED SYSTEMS

Provide telephone services for rural communities and isolated areas.

Designed for a Gaussian or Rician channel with a K factor > 7dB
Designed specifically for WLL or be piggybacked onto mobile satellite systems:
o First one offers quality and grade of service associated with wireline, but expensive.
o Second is less costly but due to BW restrictions may not offer quality of grade of service.
Makes use of any geostationary satellite on C band or Ku band.
Satellite used to provide telephony for many years to remote areas and where landline is not
cost effective, and in emergency situations.
Number of satellites and propagation delay pose constraint.
Example is Hughes Network Systems (HNS) Telephony Earth Station (TES).

2. CELLULAR BASED SYSTEMS

High power
Wide range
Median subscriber density and median quality WLL services
Primarily to expand basic telephony
Operate in 800-900MHz, 1.8-1.9 GHz and sometimes at 450MHz or 1.5GHz
work in Rayleigh fading environment, 5-10 msec delay spread.
Offers both mobility and fixed wireless access
Economical as well as rapidly deployable in sparsely populated and even urban settings.
IS-136, IS-95, PCS1900 being considered for WLL.
Limited user bandwidth fundamental limitation
Resultant coverage area is higher, meets voice and low BW

3. LOW TIER PCS or MICROCELLULAR BASED SYSTEMS

Low power
Narrow range
High subscriber density
High circuit quality WLL services
Considered to facilitate rapid market entry and to expand existing capacity
Operate in 800MHz,1.5GHz,1.8Ghz bands.
Compared with cellular, more base stations are required
Used when wireline equivalent service and quality are required.
PACS, PHS designed to work in Rayleigh fading environment, 500nsec delay spread.
Basic user channel 32Kbps, aggregation possible for more BW.
Example is DECT.
Repeaters are used to compensate for small coverage areas, but cuts into overall capacity of
system
4. FWA - FIXED WIRELESS ACCESS SYSTEMS
Proprietary radio systems
For fixed wireless applications
In cellular- limitation on quality voice and signaling transparency
In Low Tier narrow coverage range
Nonstandard FWA systems address above issues , become more efficient
Include Interdigital TDMA and Interdigital CDMA technology.

PACS WLL

ANSI standard
Low tier PCS based WLL
High circuit quality 32Kbps voice coding
Low latency data, high user BW
Rely on antenna diversity
Designed to cover a broad range of venues
Supports both public + private key authorization.
Works in both licensed + unlicensed spectrums.
Two terminals : portable handset and fixed access unit ( convert signal to RJ11 signal )
Radio port to support 8 radio channels corresponding to WANU transceiver units
RPCU provides management and control functions between RP and PSTN.

IEEE 802.15

802.15.1(Standardization Task Group)

Standardization of Bluetooth
Bluetooth also specifies higher layers
802.15.2 (Recommended practice)
Coexistence of WPAN and WLAN devices
Proposes adaptive frequency hopping

802.15.3 (High Rate WPAN)

High-rate (>20 Mbit/s) WPANs
IEEE 802.15.3a is a standard for UWB devices
IEEE 802.15.3c is a standard for gigabit wireless (> 2 Gbit/s) in the 60 GHz band
These applications are mainly in the consumer electronics area and generate the following
requirements:
o Short range: On the order of 10m.
o High throughput: Greater than 20 Mbps to support video and/or multichannel audio.
o Low power usage: To be useful in battery-powered portable devices.
o Low cost: To be reasonable for inexpensive consumer electronic devices.
 o QoS (quality of service) capable: To provide guaranteed data rate and other OoS
features for applications sensitive to throughput or latency.
o Dynamic environment: Refers to a piconet architecture in which mobile portable, and
stationary devices enter and leave the piconet often.
o Simple connectivity: To make networking easy and eliminate the need for a technically
sophisticated user.
o Privacy: To assure the user that only the intended recipients can understand what is
being transmitted.

802.15.4 (Low Rate WPAN)

Low-rate WPANs (up to 200 kbit/s)
Standardization of ZigBee and of higher layers.

BLUETOOTH
Wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances using short wavelength UHF
radio waves in ISM and from 2.4-2.483 GHz.
Uses fast frequency hopping with spread spectrum techniques, 79 channels.
Invented by Ericcson in 1994.
Nominal link range 10m/0dBm
Speeds up to 720Kbps
No line of sight restrictions
High security

PROTOCOL STACK
CORE PROTOCOLS

1. Radio: Defines air interface, frequency bands, frequency hopping specifications, modulation
technique used and transmit power classes.

2. Baseband: Addressing scheme, packet frame format, timing and power control algorithms
required for establishing connection between Bluetooth devices within piconet.

3. Link Manager Protocol: Responsible to establish link between Bluetooth devices and to
maintain the link between them. Also includes authentication and encryption specifications and
negotiation of packet sizes between devices. It also provides mechanism for synchronization of
clocks.

4. Logical link control and adaptation protocol: Adapts upper layer frame to baseband layer frame
format and vice versa. Takes care of both connection oriented and connectionless services. It
provides 3 type of logical channels:
a. Connectionless: Unidirectional channels, typically for broadcast from master to
multiple slaves.
b. Connection oriented: Bidirectional, full duplex, channels.
c. Signaling: Provides for exchange of signaling messages.

L2CAP Packets

Length: Length of the information payload plus PSM fields, in bytes.

Channel ID: A value of 2, indicating the connectionless channel.
Protocol/service multiplexer (PSM): Identifies the higher-layer recipient for the payload in this
packet.
Information payload: Higher-layer user data. This field may be up to 65533(216 - 3) bytes in
length.

5. Service discovery protocol: Service related queries including device information can be taken
care at this protocol so that connection can be established between Bluetooth devices.
 6. Cable replacement protocol : Bluetooth uses RFCOMM as cable replacement protocol.
RFCOMM functions as virtual serial port and does transport of binary digital data bits. It basically
emulates RS232 specifications over bluetooth physical layer.

7. Telephony Control Protocols

1. TCS-BIN ( telephony control specification binary) and AT = TCP .
2. Define mobility management and video/data call control.

Adopted protocols
These protocols are already defined by other standard bodies which are incorporate without any change
in the bluetooth protocol stack architecture.
Point to point protocols: used to transfer IP datagrams
TCP/UDP and IP are part of basic TCP/IP model
OBEX is a Object Exchange Protocol developed by IrDA and it is similar to HTTP. It is a session
level protocol.
WAE and WAP - Wireless Application Environment and Wireless Application Protocol.

WIMAX

WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.

An IP based, wireless broadband access technology that provides performance similar to
802.11/Wi-Fi networks with the coverage and QOS (quality of service) of cellular networks.
Point to multipoint technology
IEEE 802.16 group , formed to develop an air interface standard for wireless broadband
Able to meet the needs of a large variety of users from those in developed nations wanting to
install a new high speed data network very cheaply without the cost and time required to install
a wired network, to those in rural areas needing fast access where wired solutions may not be
viable because of the distances and costs involved
The current WiMAX revision provides up to 40 Mbit/s with the IEEE 802.16m update expected to
offer up to 1 Gbit/s fixed speeds.

IEEE 802.16 SERVICES

Digital audio/video multicast

Digital telephony
ATM
Internet protocol
Bridged LAN
Back-haul
Frame relay
a. Header: Contains protocol control information needed for the functioning of the MAC
protocol.
b. Payload: The payload may be either higher-level data (e.g., an ATM cell, an IP packet, a
block of digital speech) or a MAC control message.
c. CRC: The cyclic redundancy check field contains an error-detecting code
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

Physical layer functions:

o Encoding/decoding of signals
o Preamble generation/removal
o Bit transmission/reception
o Error correction uses Reed-Solomon codes
o Modulation scheme based on QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM
o Uses a DAMA-TDMA technique
o Downlink can be continuous else burst in nature.
Medium access control layer functions:
o On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and error detection fields
o On reception, disassemble frame, and perform address recognition and error detection
o Govern access to the wireless transmission medium
o Connection-oriented
o Radio Link Control:
Power control and paging
Transition among burst profiles
o Bandwidth Requests & Grants:
Two kinds of subscribers
Grant per connection (GPC)
Grant per subscriber (GPSS)
Both classes request bandwidth per connection for QoS guarantees
o MAC Management Messages
Uplink and downlink channel descriptor
ARQ acknowledgment
Downlink data grant type request
Ranging request and response
Privacy key management request and response

Convergence layer functions:

o Encapsulate PDU framing of upper layers into native 802.16 MAC/PHY frames
o Map upper layers addresses into 802.16 addresses
o Translate upper layer QoS parameters into native 802.16 MAC format
o Adapt time dependencies of upper layer traffic into equivalent MAC service
MOBILE ADHOC NETWORK

MANET - Mobile adhoc network - also known as wireless ad hoc network or adhoc wireless
network
Continuously self configuring, infrastructure less network of mobile devices.
Each device in MANET is free to move independently anywhere
Each must forward traffic unrelated to itself, i.e act as a router
Mobile nodes have limited communication range
o Reduces battery drain
o Enables spatial reuse of limited bandwidth - increased network capacity
To connect all nodes in the network, each node is a
o Packet source
o Packet sink
o Router
Ad hoc networks must also support communication between nodes that are only indirectly
connected by a series of wireless hops through other nodes.

The mobile Ad hoc networks has the following features-

Autonomous terminal : each mobile terminal is an autonomous node, which may function as
both a host and a router.
Distributed operation: the control and management of the network is distributed among the
terminals
Multihop routing
Dynamic network topology: MANET should adapt to the traffic and propagation conditions as
well as the mobility patterns of the mobile network nodes.
Fluctuating link capacity : high bit-error rates might be more profound
Light-weight terminals: nodes are mobile devices with less CPU processing capability, small
memory size, and low power storage.

CHALLENGES

Scalability - actual size of such a network is undefined.

Routing network must be ready to adapt to continually establish routes when nodes move.
Quality of service terms of jitter, BW, packet loss probability etc
 Client server model shift - it is still not clear who will be responsible for managing various
network services
Security - Lack of any centralized network Management , structures very vulnerable to
infiltration, eavesdropping, interference
Energy conservation
Node cooperation
Transmission Errors
Node Failures
Link Failures
Route Breakages
Congested Nodes or Links

TYPES

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs)

Used for communication between vehicles and roadside equipment.
Help in intelligent manners during collisions, accidents etc.

Smart Phone ad hoc networks(SPANs)

Create peer to peer connection without relying on cellular carrier networks or traditional
infrastructure.

Internet based mobile ad hoc networks(iMANETs)

Supports internet protocols like TCP/UDP and IP.

Hub Spoke MANET

Geographically distributed MANET created

Military or tactical MANETs

THE IRIDIUM SYSTEM

Extension of existing wireless systems to provide mobile services to sparsely populated, remote
areas
Provides more capacity
Large number of channels
Better QoS
Shorter transmission delays
Can provide emergency service if terrestrial services are disabled.
Proposed 77 satellites.
Actually consists of 66 active satellites in orbit required for global coverage, and additional spare
satellites to serve in case of failure.( +6 )
783 km above earth
66 satellites grouped in 6 orbital planes
Each satellite is equipped with four 2 way communication links, one each with neighbors on same
plane and with those in adjacent planes.
Switching of beams in IRIDIUM is called cell management. Used to provide continuity of existing call,
equivalent to cellular handoff.
Supports link of 3 types :
o Up and downlinks from space vehicle SV to gateway GW using Ka band
o Up and downlinks between SV and Iridium Subscriber Unit ISU using L band
o 2 way inter satellite links between SVs using Ka band
ISU is a dual mode mobile station that supports both satellite and terrestrial mobile network
interface standards.
Call processing architecture based on GSM.
GLOBALSTAR SYSTEM

48 LEO satellites
Does not depend on intersatellite links but on large number of interconnected earth stations or
gateways for efficient call routing and delivery over terrestrial network.
To complement terrestrial cellular mobile networks
Provide telephony and messaging service to subscribers.
1414 km above earth.
8 orbital planes
Since not providing intersatellite links, only provide transponder functions, less complex and
more reliable.
Path diversity: multiple satellites to complete a call.
Calls from subscriber routed via satellite to earths station / GW, and from there over terrestrial
network.
100 or more GW stations, each with 3-5 antennas to track trajectory of satellite.
Two links:
o Service link in L/S band b/w SV and terminals
o Gateway links in C band b/w SV and earths station.