Girder moments in simply supported skew

composite bridges
Tarek Ebeido and John B. Kennedy
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Abstract: The evaluation of girder moments in composite bridges becomes more urgent with the trend to increasing
truck loads. The method specified by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials for such
an evaluation depends only on the centre-to-centre girder spacing. This method does not account for skew and therefore
is extremely conservative for skew composite bridges, since the presence of skew reduces the longitudinal moments in
the girders. The method proposed by the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC) depends on the longitudinal
and transverse rigidities of the bridge in addition to the girder spacing. However, this method is limited to bridges with
skew parameters less than a certain value specified in the code. In this paper, the influence of skew on the moment
distribution factor is investigated. Furthermore, the influences of other factors such as girder spacing, bridge aspect
ratio, number of lanes, number of girders, and intermediate transverse diaphragms on the moment distribution factor are
examined. An experimental program was conducted on six simply supported skew composite steel-concrete bridge
models. The finite element method was used for the theoretical analysis. Good agreement is shown between the
experimental results and the theoretical results. In addition, the finite element method was employed to conduct an
extensive parametric study on more than 300 prototype composite bridge cases. The data generated from the parametric
study were used to deduce expressions for the moment distribution factor for OHBDC truck loading and for dead load.
An illustrative example is presented.
Key words: bridges, codes of practice, composite, distribution, moment, reinforced concrete, skew, structural
For personal use only.

engineering, tests.

Resume : L'Cvaluation des moments dans les longrines des ponts composites devient plus urgente avec la tendance
d'augmenter les charges de camions. La mCthode sptcifite par 1'American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials pour une telle evaluation dtpend seulement de l'espacement centre a centre des longrines. Cette
mCthode ne tient pas compte de l'obliquiti, et elle est ainsi extrCmement conservatrice pour les ponts composites
obliques puisque la presence d'obliquitt reduit les moments longitudinaux dans les longrines. La methode proposCe par
I'Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC) dCpend des rigiditCs longitudinale et transversale du pont en plus d e
l'espacement des longrines. Cependant, cette mCthode est limitCe i des ponts ayant des parametres d'obliquitC infkrieurs
i une certaine valeur sptcifiCe dans le code. Dans cet article, l'influence de l'obliquiti sur le facteur d e distribution d e
moment est examinCe. De plus, l'influence d'autres paramktres tels que l'espacement de longrines, le facteur
d'elongation du pont, le nombre de ruelles, le nombre de longrines, et les diaphragrnes intermtdiaires transversaux sur
la distribution de moment sont exarnints. Un programme expkrimental a CtC effectuC sur six ponts obliques modkles qui
sont composites d'acier-bCton et sirnplement supportCs. La mCthode des ClCments finis a CtC utilisCe pour l'analyse
thCorique. Un bon accord entre les rtsultats thtoriques et expkrimentaux a CtC observe. De plus, la mCthode des
ClCments finis a CtC employCe pour mener une etude paramktrique extensive sur plus de 300 prototypes de ponts
composites. Les donnCes gCnCrCes de l'ttude paramCtrique ont CtC utilisCes pour dCduire des expressions pour le facteur
de distribution de moments pour une charge de carnion OHBDC et pour une charge rnorte. Un exemple d'illustration
est prCsentC.
Mots elks : ponts, codes de pratique, composite, distribution, moment, bCton armC, obliquitC, genie de structures, essais.
[Traduit par la rkdaction]

Received December 19, 1994, Introduction

Revised manuscript accepted January 26, 1996.
The accurate prediction of girder moments in composite
T. Ebeido and J.B. Kennedy. Department of Civil and concrete-on-steel girders bridges is very important both in
Environmental Engineering, University of Windsor, Windsor, the design of new bridges and in the evaluation of existing
ON N9B 3P4, Canada. ones. The concept of load distribution factor given by several
Written discussion of this paper is welcomed and will be codes of practice simplifies the analysis a n d design of corn-
received by the Editor until December 31, 1996 (address posite bridges. However, using inappropriate load distribution
inside front cover). factors may lead to extremely conservative design moments
Can. J . Civ. Eng. 23: 904-916 (1996). Printed in Canada / ImprimC au Canada
 Ebeido and Kennedy
especially in skew bridges. The method given by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO 1989) is too conservative for skew bridges, since
the method does not consider the reduction in girder moments
due to skew. Furthermore, the method does not consider the
effect of other important factors such as the bridge aspect ratio
and the presence of intermediate transverse diaphragms. The
Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC) (OMTC
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Bahir Dar University Libraries (INASP) on 11/04/17
1992) accounts for the bridge longitudinal and transverse rigid-
ities in addition to girder spacing. However, the method
is limited to bridges with skew parameters less than a certain
value specified in the code. Therefore, there is a lack of
adequate information given by the North American codes
of practice regarding moment distribution factors for skew
bridges. Several researchers (Marx et al. 1986; Nutt et al.
1988; Bishara et al. 1993) have investigated the load distribu-
tion in skew composite bridges, presenting empirical formulas
for moment distribution factors for bridges subjected to
AASHTO truck loading. However, the above investigations
were limited, since they did not consider bridge aspect ratio,
bridge transverse rigidity, the effect of dead load, and number
of loaded lanes. Recently, Helba and Kennedy (1994) presented
results for the load distribution factors at the ultimate limit state
for simply supported and continuous skew composite bridges,
taking into account the nonlinear behaviour of the bridge as
well as the load redistribution phenomenon due to yielding.
For personal use only.
Currently, these results are being used to deduce formulas
for the moment distribution factors for simply supported skew
composite bridges at the ultimate limit state. The formulas
will be in terms of several significant design parameters such
as angle of skew, bridge aspect ratio, girder spacing, number
of lanes, number of girders, and ultimate moments of resis-
tance of the composite sections. More recently, Ebeido and
Kennedy (1995) deduced distribution factors for shear in
simply supported skew composite bridges.
In this paper, results from testing six simply supported skew
composite bridge models are presented. The linear and non-
linear finite element modelling of such bridges are presented.
Good agreement is shown between the experimental and the
theoretical results. The finite element model was used to
conduct a parametric study on prototype composite steel-
concrete bridges. The parametric study included more than
300 bridge cases. Empirical formulas for moment distribu-
tion factors for both OHBDC truck loading and dead load are
proposed. The derived formulas are in terms of the following
factors: angle of skew, girder spacing, bridge aspect ratio,
number of lanes, number of girders, and number of inter-
mediate transverse diaphragms.
Experimental program
The experimental program involved the construction, instru-
mentation, and testing of six simply supported skew composite
steel -concrete bridge models. The bridge models were divided
into two groups. The first group, including models 1, 2, and
3, was to study the effect of skew. The second group, com-
prising models 2 , 4 , 5 , and 6, was intended to study the effect
of transverse intermediate diaphragms. All bridge models of
this group had a 45" skew. Bridge model 4 was constructed
with end diaphragms along the abutment supports only. Inter-
mediate diaphragms were used in bridge models 2, 5, and 6.
The diaphragms for bridge model 2 were welded to the
Fig. 1. Detailed geometry of bridge model 1: (a) transverse
section; (b) plan. (All dimensions are in millimetres.)
(a)
S 75x4-
3 3 6 3 3 6 ---J---336--I
(b)
Simple Support Simple Support
t
V * Cross-Beams
S 75~8(Weldedto the
Longitudinal Beams)
longitudinal beams; in bridge model 5 , the diaphragms were
bolted to the longitudinal beams. The diaphragms for bridge
model 6 were welded to the longitudinal beams and were
made composite with the reinforced concrete deck slab. All
bridge models were simply supported with a skew span of
1778 mm and a width of 1067 mm perpendicular to the traffic
direction, representing two traffic lanes. Detailed geometry
of bridge model 1 is shown in Fig. 1. The longitudinal steel
beams, end diaphragms, and intermediate diaphragms were
S75 X 8 of grade G40.21-M300W. The concrete in the deck
slab was designed for a 7-day compressive strength of 41 MPa.
The percentage of fine aggregate to total aggregate was 48%.
The water-cement ratio was 0.4 with an aggregate -cement
ratio of 2.7, both by weight. High early strength cement was
used, and the maximum size of coarse aggregate was 10 mm.
A mesh of welded wires, with a yield strength of 228 MPa,
was used as reinforcing steel for all bridge models. The mesh
was spaced 75 mm centre to centre, with a mesh diameter of
3.4 mm, and a cross-sectional area of 9.0 mm2. Stud shear
connectors, 31.8 mm long, supplied by Nelson Stud Welding
Division of TRW Canada Ltd. were used for all bridge models.
Strain gauges, 10 mm long, were installed at several critical
locations on the steel beams and on the concrete deck slab.
Mechanical dial gauges with a travel sensitivity of 0.025 mm
were used to measure deflections of the steel beams. The
load was applied to the bridge deck by a hydraulic jack of
890 kN capacity.
Each bridge model was first tested elastically using simu-
lated truck loads. The simulated truck loads were applied at
various locations in the longitudinal direction. In the trans-
verse direction, the width of all the bridge models represents
two traffic lanes and therefore two loading cases were con-
sidered for each bridge model. In the first loading case, one
simulated truck load was applied on one of the lanes and the
 906 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 23, 1996

Table 1. Description of tested bridge models.

Bridge Angle of Skew Skew Deck

model skew, 0 span width thickness
NO. (degree) (mm) (mm) (mm) Type of transverse diaphragms
1 30 1778 1232 38 Diaphragms moment-connected to the longitudinal beams
2 45 1778 1509 38 Diaphragms moment-connected to the longitudinal beams
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3 60 1778 2134 38 Diaphragms moment-connected to the longitudinal beams

4 45 1778 1509 38 End diaphragms only
5 45 1778 1509 38 Diaphragms shear-connected to the longitudinal beams
6 45 1778 1509 38 Diaphragms moment-connected to the longitudinal beams
and made composite with the deck slab

Fig. 2. Bridge model 3 with one lane loaded.

For personal use only.

bridge model was classified as partially loaded. In the second
loading case, two simulated truck loads were applied on the
two lanes and the bridge model was classified as fully loaded.
For each loading case, deflections as well as strains were
measured along longitudinal and transverse lines. Finally,
each bridge model was tested to failure using one simulated
truck load applied on one of the lanes at the same location
for all bridge models. In addition, the following were deter-
mined for each bridge model: (i) cracking load of the deck
slab; (ii) collapse load of the bridge model; and (iii) crack
pattern of the deck slab. Some details of the six bridge models
tested are presented in Table 1. Bridge model 3 with one lane
loaded is shown in Fig. 2.
Theoretical study
The finite element program ABAQUS (Hibbitt et al. 1989)
was used for the theoretical study. This program was applied
to analyze the six bridge models tested and to conduct an
extensive parametric study on more than 300 prototype skew
composite steel -concrete bridge cases. The reinforced con-
crete deck slab was modelled using four-node shell elements
with six degrees of freedom at each node. The nonlinear rein-
forced concrete elements allowed for cracking in tension and
for crushing in compression. The longitudinal steel girders,
end diaphragms, and intermediate diaphragms were modelled
using three-dimensional two-node beam elements with six
degrees of freedom at each node. Two different nodal con-
straints were used in the analysis. The two simple supports
at the ends of the bridge were modelled using a boundary
constraint option, in which the vertical displacements were
restricted for all nodes located along the support lines. The
multipoint constraint option allowed constraints between
different degrees of freedom. It was used between the shell
nodes of the reinforced concrete deck slab and the beam
element nodes of the longitudinal steel beams. The multi-
point constraint option ensured full interaction between the
reinforced concrete deck slab and the longitudinal steel girders,
thus modelling the presence of the shear connectors.
In the nonlinear analysis, the load was applied gradually
in small increments as defined in the ABAQUS program
(Hibbitt et al. 1989), together with the convergence of the
iteration process at each increment of load. The concrete
under compression was modelled by an elastic-plastic theory,
 Ebeido and Kennedy
Fig. 3. OHBDC truck loading cases considered in the parametric study: (a) partially loaded bridges; (6) fully
loaded bridges.
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Bahir Dar University Libraries (INASP) on 11/04/17
Two-Lane Bridge Three-Lane Bridge
Two-Lane Bridge Three-Lane Bridge
using a simple form for the yield surface expressed in terms
of the equivalent pressure stress and the Mises equivalent
stress. Isotropic hardening was accounted for. Cracking was
assumed to occur when the stress reached the failure surface
represented by a simple Coulomb line in terms of an equiva-
lent pressure stress, P, and the Mises equivalent diviatoric
For personal use only.
stress, q (Hibbitt et al. 1989).
Parametric study
The objectives of the parametric study were (i) to investigate
the influence of all major parameters affecting the distribu-
tion of load between girders in the elastic range of loading;
(ii) to generate a database for moment distribution factor for
more than 300 bridge cases; and (iii) to develop empirical
formulas for moment distribution factors corresponding to
OHBDC truck loading as well as to dead load. The parameters
chosen for this study were angle of skew, aspect ratio, girder
spacing, number of lanes, number of girders, and number of
intermediate diaphragms. The number of lanes considered
was 2, 3, and 4. The bridge widths were 8.4 m for two-lane
bridges, 12.6 m for three-lane bridges, and 16.2 m for four-
lane bridges. The span lengths were 16.2, 19.8, and 23.4 m.
Based on the bridge widths and span lengths, the bridge aspect
ratio (spanlwidth) varied from 1 to 2.8. The number of girders
was 3, 4, and 5 for two-lane bridges, 4, 5, and 6 for three-
lane bridges, and 5, 6, and 7 for four-lane bridges. Based on
the bridge widths and number of beams, the girder spacing
ranged from 1.5 to 3.8 m. The angles of skew were 0, 30,
45", and 60". The bridges were analyzed with no diaphragms
and with 1 to 6 lines of intermediate transverse diaphragms
moment-connected to the longitudinal girders. The steel sec-
tions used for the longitudinal girders were W610 x 155 for
the 16.2 m span length, W760 x 185 for the 19.8 m span
length, and W760 X 196 for the 23.4 m span length. The
diaphragms were W360 x 33 for the 16.2 m span length,
W360 x 91 for the 19.8 m span length, and W360 x 101 for
the 23.4 m span length. The longitudinal steel girders and the
transverse diaphragms were of grade G40.21-M300W. For all
bridges, a 225-mm-thick concrete deck slab of 30 MPa com-
pressive strength was used and reinforced at top and bottom
by a steel mesh having an area of 400 mm2/m. All bridges
Four-Lane Bridge
Four-Lane Bridge
were designed according to the OHBDC code (OMTC 1992).
Three loading cases were considered for each prototype
bridge. In the first loading case, the bridge was partially
loaded. One OHBDC truck was used for two-lane bridges
whereas two OHBDC trucks were used for three-lane and
four-lane bridges, as shown in Fig. 3a. It should be noted
that the trucks were moved in the transverse direction within
the loaded lanes in order to yield the maximum moment for
both the exterior and the interior girders. In the second load-
ing case, the bridge was fully loaded by two OHBDC trucks
for two-lane bridges, three OHBDC trucks for three-lane
bridges, and four OHBDC trucks for four-lane bridges, as
shown in Fig. 36. In this case, the trucks were also moved
within the loaded lanes to yield the maximum moment for
both the exterior and the interior girders. It should be noted
that in both cases of partially loaded bridges and fully loaded
bridges, the trucks were also moved in the longitudinal direc-
tion in order to yield the maximum moments. The third load-
ing case was the dead load of the bridge in which the total
weights of the reinforced concrete deck slab, the longitudinal
steel girders, and the transverse diaphragms were applied on
the bridge as a uniformly distributed load.
Results
Six simply supported skew composite steel-concrete bridge
models were tested in the laboratory. Each bridge model was
tested first elastically using simulated truck loads applied at
various locations. Finally, each bridge model was tested to
failure using one simulated truck load applied on one of the
lanes at the same location for all the bridge models in order
to study the effect of skew and diaphragms on the collapse
load of composite bridges.
Figure 4 shows comparisons between the experimental
and theoretical results for deflections and strains of the steel
beams in a partially loaded bridge case for different skew
angles. The comparisons show good agreement for both deflec-
tions and strains. The following also can be observed: ( i ) the
exterior beam is the one that undergoes the maximum deflec-
tion and strain for all skew angles; (ii) the deflection of the
exterior beam decreased by about 25% when the skew angle
increased from 30" to 45" and by another 26% when the skew
 908 Can. J . Civ. Eng. Vol. 23, 1996

Fig. 4. Effect of skew on deflections and strains for group I bridge models (partially loaded bridge case). (F.E.A., finite
element analysis.)
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Fig. 5. Effect of skew on deflections and strains for group I bridge models (fully loaded bridge case). (F.E.A., finite
element analysis.)
For personal use only.

Table 2. Comparison of experimental and
theoretical collapse loads.
Bridge Collapse load (kN)
model
NO. Experimental Finite element analysis
angle increased to 60"; (iii) the strain of the exterior beam
decreased by about 21 % when the skew angle increased from
30" to 45' and by about 24% when the skew angle increased
to 60"; and (iv) deflections and strains of other beams
decreased with increase in the angle of skew.
Comparisons between the experimental and theoretical
results for deflections and strains of the steel beams in a fully
loaded bridge case for different skew angles are shown in
Fig. 5. Favourable comparisons are observed. The reduc-
tions in deflections and strains with increase in skew angle
are similar to those in the case of eccentric simulated truck
load. It is also observed that the values of the strain for the
interior beams in this case are higher than that for the exterior
beams. Comparing the results presented in Figs. 4 and 5
reveals that the values of strains and deflections in the case
of full loading are higher than that for a partial loading case.
Therefore full loading would control the design.
Table 2 presents the experimental and theoretical collapse
loads for all the bridge models tested. Good agreement is
noted between the experimental and theoretical collapse loads.
The collapse load increased by about 15% when the skew
angle increased from 30" to 45" and increased by another
18% when the skew angle increased from 45" to 60".
The effect of diaphragms on the deflections and strains of
the steel beams is presented in Fig. 6 for a partially loaded
bridge case. Good agreement is found between the experi-
mental and theoretical results. For bridge model 4, with no
diaphragms, the exterior beam undergoes the maximum deflec-
tions and strains. It can be observed from the results of bridge
model 5, with shear-connected diaphragms, that the deflec-
tion and strain for the interior beam decreased significantly
in comparison to bridge model 4. However, the decrease in
 Ebeido and Kennedy
Fig. 6. Effect of diaphragms on deflections and strains for group I1 bridge models (partially loaded bridge case). (F.E.A.,
finite element analysis.)
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the deflection and strain for the exterior beam is not so sig-
nificant. Bridge models 2 and 6 had superior load distribution
characteristics. Deflections and strains for both the exterior
and interior beams decreased significantly in comparison with
those in bridge model 4. The critical beam in terms of deflec-
For personal use only.
tion and strain for both bridge models was the exterior beam.
Results, not shown herein, reveal that the effect of diaphragms
is less significant in the case of full loading.
The effect of diaphragms on the collapse loads is shown
in Table 2. Comparing the results for bridge model 4, with
no diaphragms, with those for bridge model 5 with shear-
connected diaphragms shows an increase of about 9 % in the
collapse load. Whereas the collapse load increased by about
23 % for bridge model 2 with moment-connected diaphragms.
The collapse load for bridge model 6, where diaphragms
were moment-connected to the longitudinal girders and made
composite with the deck slab, increased by about 26% com-
pared to bridge model 4 with no diaphragms.
Moment distribution factor
In order to derive the moment distribution factor, D, the
maximum moment, M , of a simply supported composite girder
under the effect of a line of wheel loads of an OHBDC truck
or under the effect of dead load was first calculated for each
prototype bridge. Then, the linear finite element model was
used to obtain the maximum moment, M,,, in all the girders
for each prototype bridge in the parametric study. The moment
distribution factor, D, was then calculated from the follow-
ing relationship:
It should be noted that D as defined above is dimension-
less and therefore it is different from that defined in the
Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (OMTC 1992) where
it is in metres. The effect of different parameters on the
moment distribution factor, D, is presented below.
Effect of angle of skew
The results show that the angle of skew, 6, is the most impor-
tant factor that influences the distribution of moments in
composite bridges. The moment distribution factor, D, for the
prototype bridges was determined for three types of loading:
partial truck loading as shown in Fig. 3a, full truck loading
as shown in Fig. 3b, and the dead load. Figure 7 shows the
effect of skew on the moment distribution factor for an
exterior girder of a fully loaded three-lane bridge with differ-
ent aspect ratios. It is observed that skew has no significant
effect on the moment distribution factor for skew angles
between 0" and 30". However, the moment distribution factor
increases significantly with increase in skew between 30"
and 60". It is also observed that the effect of aspect ratio on
the moment distribution factor increases with increase in the
skew angle. Figure 8 shows the effect of skew on the moment
distribution factor for an interior girder of a fully loaded two-
lane bridge with different aspect ratios. It can be noted that
the increase in the moment distribution factor with skew is
greater than that in the case of an exterior girder. However,
the value of the moment distribution factor for a right bridge,
6 = 0, is almost the same for both exterior and interior
girders. Thus, for the design of skew bridges the exterior
girder is the controlling girder. While the effect of skew on
moment distribution factor for a partial truck loading case is
similar to that for a full truck loading case, the values of the
moment distribution factors for a full truck loading case are
lower than those for a partial truck loading case. This implies
that the critical loading case for the design of skew bridges
is the full truck loading case. However, because of the reduc-
tion in the load intensity for multilane loading (OMTC 1992),
both partial and full truck loading cases should be consid-
ered. The effect of skew on the moment distribution factor
for an interior girder of a four-lane bridge under dead load
is presented in Fig. 9. It can be noted that this factor increases
with increase in the angle of skew, the rate of this increase
being much greater for 6 between 30" and 60".
Effect of aspect ratio
The results presented in Fig. 10 reveal the effect of aspect
ratio on the moment distribution factor for an interior girder
of a fully loaded two-lane bridge. The following can be
 910 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 23, 1996

Fig. 7. Effect of skew on the moment distribution factor for an exterior girder of a fully loaded three-lane bridge.
0.95
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Angle of Skew, 8"
For personal use only.

Fig. 8. Effect of skew on the moment distribution factor for an interior girder of a fully loaded two-lane bridge.

77

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Angle of Skew, 8'

observed: (i) the aspect ratio has no effect on the moment
distribution factor for a right bridge, 0 = 0"; and (ii) the
moment distribution factor decreases significantly with increase
in the aspect ratio for bridges with skew angles 45" and 60".
Results for an exterior girder of a fully loaded bridge, not
shown herein for brevity, revealed that the moment distribu-
tion factor decreases with increase in the aspect ratio for all
skew angles. Figure 11 presents the results for the effect of
aspect ratio on the moment distribution factor for an exterior
girder of a partially loaded three-lane bridge. It is observed
that the factor increases significantly with increase in the
aspect ratio for all skew angles. Results for an interior girder
of a partially loaded bridge, not shown herein for brevity,
revealed that the distribution factor decreases with increase
in the aspect ratio. While this decrease is small for skew
angles 0" and 30, it becomes significant for skew angles 45"
 Ebeido and Kennedy

Fig. 9. Effect of skew on the moment distribution factor for an interior girder of a four-lane bridge under
dead load.
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Angle of Skew, 8'
For personal use only.

Fig. 10. Effect of aspect ratio on the moment distribution factor for an interior girder of a fully loaded
two-lane bridge.
1.8

Angle of skew = 60 degrees

2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

Aspect Ratio

and 60". The dead load results, not shown herein for brevity,
reveal that the distribution factor decreases with increase in
the aspect ratio for both exterior and interior girders.
Effect of girder spacing
The spacing of longitudinal girders, S, is one of the most crit-
ical parameters affecting the moment distribution factor. The
girder spacing is a factor of the bridge width and the number
of longitudinal girders. The bridge width can be considered
to be the number of lanes multiplied by the lane width, which
can be assumed to be constant. Therefore the girder spacing
could be related to the number of girders and the number of
 91 2 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 23, 1996

Fig. 11. Effect of aspect ratio on the moment distribution factor for an exterior girder of a partially loaded
three-lane bridge.
1.2 -

Angle of Skew = 60 degrees

n
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b7 1.1
0
Y
0
ta
.-
0
Y
a
9
k
1
U
YJ

E
Y
a
;0.9

0.8
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Aspect Ratio
For personal use only.

lanes. Thus, it is suggested that a measure for the girder bridges using the method presented by Kennedy and Grace
spacing be expressed by a dimensionless factor, N, defined by (1983). The flexural rigidity ratio, R, was then calculated as

[2] N =
number of lanes
number of girders
Figure 12 shows the effect of the ratio N on the moment
distribution factor for an exterior girder of a fully loaded
four-lane bridge. It is observed that the factor decreases
significantly with increase in the ratio N. The effect is almost
the same for all the skew angles considered. For an interior
girder, the effect of the ratio N on the factor is almost the
same as in the case of an exterior girder. Similar effects were
found for both interior and exterior girders in a partial truck
loading case. However, under dead load, different effects of
the ratio N were found for both the interior and exterior
girders of the bridge. In this case the moment distribution
factor increases with increase in the ratio N for all the skew
angles considered. Figure 13 shows the effect of the ratio N
on the moment distribution factor for an exterior girder of a
four-lane bridge under dead load. It should be noted that an
increase in the moment distribution factor with increase in
the ratio N in this case does not necessarily imply a decrease
in the value of the girder moment, since the moment, M, of
the simply supported composite girder also changes with
changes in the girder spacing.
Effect of transverse diaphragms
The prototype bridges considered in the parametric study were
examined first without transverse diaphragms. They were then
analyzed with different number of intermediate diaphragms
moment-connected to the longitudinal girders. The number
of such diaphragms were varied from 1 to 7. The longitudinal
and transverse rigidities were calculated for all prototype
where Dx is the flexural rigidity in the longitudinal direction
per unit width, and D, is the flexural rigidity in the transverse
direction per unit length. The effect of the flexural rigidity
ratio on the moment distribution factor, for an exterior girder
of a partially loaded two-lane bridge, is presented in Fig. 14.
The following can be observed: ( i ) the factor increases with
increase in the rigidity ratio and increases further with increase
in the angle of skew; and (ii)the factor is not affected signifi-
cantly when the rigidity ratio exceeds 21 % . Furthermore, in
a full truck loading case as well as in the case of dead load,
the effect of the rigidity ratio was found to be less significant
than that in a partial truck loading case.
Empirical formulas for the moment distribution factor, D
Based on the data generated in the parametric study, analyzing
more than 300 cases of prototype bridges, empirical formulas
were generated for the moment distribution factor, D, using
a statistical package for best fit. The moment distribution
factors were determined for both exterior and interior girders.
The empirical formulas are in terms of the following signifi-
cant parameters: ( i ) angle of skew, 0, in degrees; (ii)bridge
aspect ratio, A,; (iii) girder spacing expressed as the dimen-
sionless parameter, N, defined as the ratio of number of lanes
to number of girders; and (iv) the flexural rigidity ratio, R,
in percent. The three loading cases were full truck loading
case, partial truck loading case, and dead load. Based on
preliminary results, it was revealed that more accurate predic-
tions for the moment distribution factor, D, are obtained if
 Ebeido and Kennedy

Fig. 12. Effect of girder spacing on the moment distribution factor for an exterior girder of a fully loaded
four-lane bridge.

, Angle of Skew = 60 degrees

Can. J. Civ. Eng. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Bahir Dar University Libraries (INASP) on 11/04/17

0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

Ratio, N
For personal use only.

Fig. 13. Effect of girder spacing on the moment distribution factor for an exterior girder of a four-lane
bridge under dead load.
1.4

6 0 degree
30 degrees

0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

Ratio, N

the best-fit formulas are presented for two ranges of skew
angles, namely I3 < 30" and $ > 30". For a bridge with a
skew angle, 13, of 30, the value of the factor D is calculated
from the equations listed below for these two ranges, and the
smaller value of D is used for a conservative design. Sample
calculations have shown that there is a 1-6% difference in
the value of the D factor at I3 = 30" when it is calculated
approaching 30" from above and from below. It should be
noted that the effect of the bridge aspect ratio sometimes
appears in the equations in a different way from that explained
earlier. This is due to the variation in the rigidity ratio with
the aspect ratio because the section of the longitudinal girder
 914 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 23, 1996

Fig. 14. Effect of flexural rigidity ratio, R, on the moment distribution factor for an exterior girder of a
partially loaded two-lane bridge.

1.3 Angle of Skew = 60 degrees

n
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Bahir Dar University Libraries (INASP) on 11/04/17

L7
0
Y
g 1.2
Lr,

.-C
Y
0

a
L) 1.1
.I
h
VJ
Y

2
Y

:
E
'
5 0.9

0.8 1 I I I I I I

6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Rigidity Ratio, R (%)
For personal use only.

changes. Thus the deduced formulas are as follows: Interior girder of a filly loaded bridge
For 6 < 30,
Exterior girder of a filly loaded bridge
For 6 < 30, 0.4 l(1 + 8)0.033~0.05~0.05
[lo] D= r
~0.82

[4] D = 0.52(1 + 6)"~M)8R0~"5~!?.05 For 6 > 30,

~0.71

For 6 > 30,

Interior girder of a partially loaded bridge

For 6 < 30,
Exterior girder of a partially loaded bridge
For 6 < 30,

For 6 > 30,

For 0 > 30,

lnterior girder of a bridge under dead load

For 6 < 30,
Exterior girder of a bridge under dead load
For 6 < 30, [14] D = 1.02(1 + 6)0.02R0.025N0.3
For 6 > 30,
[8] D = 1.26(1 + 6)0.O1N0.503
AO. I32
r

For 6 > 30,

0.4760.27~0.04~0.44 Illustrative example
[9] D = Consider a four-lane bridge with five girders composite with
A.! 19 a concrete deck slab. The bridge details are as follows: span
 Ebeido and Kennedy
of bridge = 24 m; total bridge width = 17.4 m; angle of
skew = 45" ; girder spacing = 3.75 m; deck slab thickness =
0.225 m; five longitudinal girders W760 x 257; and three
lines of moment-connected transverse diaphragms W360 x 33.
It is required to calculate the maximum design moment for
both the exterior and the interior girders of the bridge and to
check the strength of the assumed sections. The aspect ratio,
A,, has a value of 1.38 (= 24117.4), and from [2] the ratio
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N is 0.8 (= 415). Applying the method presented by Kennedy
and Grace (1983), the flexural rigidity in the longitudinal
direction is given by D, = (257)(105)(E), where E is the
modulus of elasticity of the concrete slab; and the flexural
rigidity in the transverse direction, considering the effect of
the transverse diaphragms, is D, = (23)(105)(E). From [3]
the rigidity ratio, R, is 8.9% (= (23)(1O5)(E)1(257)(1O5)(E)).
Applying a line of wheel loads of an OHBDC truck on a
simple composite girder having a 0.225 m deck slab and
3.75 m wide with a span of 24 m, the maximum moment, M,
is 1299 kN . m. Due to dead load, for the exterior girders,
MDL = 1405 kN m, and for the interior girders, MDL =
1671 kN - m. The moment distribution factor, D , for the
exterior girders of the bridge under full truck loading is
0.73 (using [5]); therefore M,, = MID = 129910.73 =
1779 kN . m. Under partial truck loading, using [7], D =
0.82; thus M,, = 129910.82 = 1584 kN . m. Under dead
load, using [9], D = 1.22; therefore M,, = 140511.22 =
For personal use only.
1152 kN . m. For the interior girders of the bridge under full
truck loading, using [ l l ] , D = 0.87; therefore M,,, = 4. The presence of intermediate transverse diaphragms
129910.87 = 1493 kN . m. Under partial truck loading, using
[13], D = 1.13; thereforeM,,, = 129911.13 = 1150kN.m.
For the dead load, using [15], D = 1.49; thus M,, = the rigidity ratio, R (the ratio of transverse rigidity to longi-
167111.49 = 1121 kN . m.
The results presented above revealed that the moment in
the exterior girder is greater than that in the interior girder
and therefore the exterior girder will be considered for
design. Using a reduction factor of 0.70 for multilane load-
ing in the case of full loading, the maximum live load moment
in this case is M,,, = (0.70)(1779) = 1245 kN - m. The
live load moment in a partial truck loading case is M,,,, =
(0.9)(1584) = 1426 kN - m, since the reduction factor for
multilane loading in this case is 0.9. Therefore, the partial
truck loading case controls the design. In order to estimate
the dynamic load allowance, the first flexural frequency of the
bridge was calculated as w = 6.9 Hz. Based on the OHBDC
code (OMTC 1992), the corresponding dynamic load allow-
ance is approximately 25%. Thus the maximum live load
moment including the dynamic load allowance is M,,, =
(1426)(1.25) = 1783 kN . m. The factored moment, using a
load factor of 1.3 for dead load moment and 1.4 for live
load moment, is M,, ,,,,,, = 1.3 x 1152 + 1.4 x 1783 =
3994 kN . m. Strength calculations of the composite section
showed that the assumed section is adequate with a resisting
moment capacity of 4076 kN . m, which is greater than the
3994 kN . m required. It should be emphasized that the shear
capacity of the selected sections should also be checked
(Ebeido and Kennedy 1995).
Conclusions
Empirical formulas were deduced to evaluate the moment
distribution factors for exterior and interior girders of skew
composite bridges subjected to OHBDC truck loading as well
as to dead load. The expressions are based on an extensive
parametric study on prototype bridges analyzed using a finite
element model, and are verified and substantiated by results
from tests on six simply supported skew composite bridge
models. Based on this study, the following conclusions can
be made:
1. In the evaluation of girder moments in skew composite
bridges the exterior girder is the controlling girder for design.
The full truck loading case is the critical case of loading,
yielding maximum moment: in both exterior and interior
girders. However, because of the reduction in the load inten-
sity for multilane loading (OMTC 1992), both partial and full
truck loading cases should be considered. The girder moment
due to the bridge dead load is also significant and has to be
evaluated carefully.
2. Skew is the most important parameter affecting girder
moments in composite bridges. An increase in the skew angle
significantly reduces the girder moments. The effect of skew
becomes more significant for skew angles greater than 30".
The interior girders are more sensitive to a change in the
skew angle than the exterior girders.
3. Girder spacing is a very important factor influencing the
moment distribution factor in composite bridges. The moment
distribution factor decreases significantly with increase in the
ratio N (number of laneslnumber of girders), which is a
measure of the girder spacing.
moment-connected to the longitudinal girders enhances the
load distribution characteristics of the bridge. An increase in
tudinal rigidity), increases the moment distribution factor.
However, using a rigidity ratio greater than approximately
21 % is not economical, since beyond this value it does not
have much effect on the moment distribution factor.
5. The bridge aspect ratio has an influence o n the moment
distribution factor. The effect of aspect ratio increases with
increase in the skew angle.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada under Grant A-1896.
The assistance of TRW Nelson Stud Welding Co. in the loan
of their welding equipment is greatly appreciated.
References
AASHTO. 1989. Standard specifications for highway bridges.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, D.C.
Bishara, A.G., Liu, M.C., and El-Ali, N.D. 1993. Wheel load
distribution on simply supported skew I-beam composite bridges.
ASCE Journal of the Structural Division, 119(ST2): 399-419.
Ebeido, T., and Kennedy, J.B. 1995. Shear distribution in simply
supported skew composite bridges. Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering, 22: 1143- 1154.
Helba, A,, and Kennedy, J.B. 1994. Load distribution in skew
bridges at the ultimate limit state. Proceedings of the 4th Interna-
tional Conference on Short and Medium Span Bridges, Halifax,
N.S., pp. 129-140.
Hibbitt, H.D., Karlson, B.I., and Sorensen, E.P. 1989. ABAQUS
 916
Version 4-8, Finite element program. Hibbitt, Karlson & Sorensen,
Inc., Providence, R.I.
Kennedy, J.B., and Grace, N.F. 1983. Load distribution in continu-
ous composite bridges. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,
10: 384-395.
Marx, H.J., Kachaturion, N., and Gamble, W.L. 1986. Development
of design criteria for simply supported skew slab-and-girder
bridges. Structural Research Series, University of Illinois,
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Urbana-Champaign, Ill. Civil Engineering Studies Report 522.
Nutt, R.V., Schamber, R.A., and Zokaie, T. 1988. Distribution of
Wheel Loads on Highway Bridges. Final Report, Imbsen &
Associates Inc. Sacramento, Calif.
OMTC. 1992. Ontario highway bridge design code. Ontario Ministry
of Transportation and Communications, Downsview, Ont.
For personal use only.
Can. J . Civ. Eng. Vol. 23, 1996
List of symbols
bridge aspect ratio (= spantwidth)
bridge width
moment distribution factor
flexural rigidity in the longitudinal direction
flexural rigidity in the transverse direction
modulus of elasticity of the concrete slab
moment of simply supported composite girder
maximum girder moment from the finite element
analysis
dimensionless parameter as a measure of girder
spacing (defined as the ratio of number of lanes to
number of girders)
rigidity ratio (ratio of transverse rigidity to longitu-
dinal rigidity)
angle of skew in degrees
first flexural frequency of the bridge
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