Balance of Power:

According to oxford`s Advanced Learners Dictionary, Power is the ability to influence the
behaviours of others according to own wish. Balance means the equilibrium or the condition
when opposite sides are equal or in correct proportion. Thus, balance of power can simply be
defined as the conditions, when the ability to influence the behaviour of opposite sides, are equal
and in correct proportion

Prof. Sidney B. Fay has described the balance of power as, it is just equilibrium in power
among members of the family of nation which prevents any of one to become strong enough to
enforce its will upon others.

According to Hartman, a system in the sense that formation of one power block leads to the
emergence of other and ultimately it leads to a network of alliances. Hans. J. Morgenthau has
defined balance of power, only a particular manifestation of general social principle.

To sum up the above definitions, we can simply say the concept of balance of power is based in
assumption that, excess of power anywhere is threat to other states and the best antidote to
power is power.

In the state-system, control of violence the most vital function and the institution with ultimate
decision in this area is the most imported. Balance of power is that institution.

In the history of thought on the problem of what to do about inter-state violence, balance of
power is the last principle scheme of the development of world government was presented. It
was rejected by most of the state due to high value of their national sovereignty and conflicts
among states. Second scheme presented the idea of collective security, which could not prove
itself an effective idea, Then finally, balance of power came to the fore in which concept of
dissipation of power among states was divulged and it received general countenance from all
nation-states.

Basic Assumption

Balance of power is based on following assumption:

1) Every state protects its vital interests which include ideology, economic and social system,
culture and protection of certain rights.

2) Retrospective experiences have shown that a nation could better protect its interests
effectively which were more powerful than others.

3) Each state tries to increase its power in order to be able enough to protect its interests.

4) The excessive power anywhere in the system is threat to other states.

5) The best way to curb the power is through application of counter power.

Historical Evolution:

The routes of balance of power go back to fifteenth and sixteenth century when there was
rudimentary balance of power in Europe. However, it was after the emergence of nation-state
system in 17th century, after Treaty of Westphalia (1648) that balance of power started to play its
vital role in international relations.

The 18th century is considered as the golden period for balance of power. From Treaty of Utrecht
(1713) to the partition of Poland (1772), all the wars were conducted and treaties were
formulated under the concept of balance of power. After the wars of Spanish succession closed,
the treaty of Utrecht was concluded. The treaty divided the Spanish territory between France and
Austria in order to maintain balance of power. Similarly, the partition of Poland in 1772 among
France, Austro-hungry and Russia was also motivated by consideration of establishment of
balance of power.

The 19th century witnessed disturbance of balance of power and re-establishment of it. The rise
of Napoleon in France and his subsequent conquests of Europe disturbed the balance of power.
However, after his defeat at waterloo, congress of Vienna (1815) was held in, which balance of
power, was restored by marking territorial adjustments.

In 1823, USA extended its influence in South America by adopting Monroe Doctrine and thus,
concept of balance of power extended beyond Europe to American continents. It also extended
towards East and South of Europe when in 1854, France, Britain and Austria formed a coalition
against Russia and did not allow her to extend its influence in Ottoman Empire.

The result of Crimean war increased the influence of Russia and again the balance of power was
perturbed. However, in congress of Berlin (1878), it was again restored when Russia was asked
to revise its San Stefano Treaty which she had imposed upon defeated Turkey.

Beginning of 20th century faced new changes and division in Europe into opposite military blocs
under the pattern of balance of power. The pattern was disturbed when Germany attack Belgium
in 1914 provoked WW-I. After the worldwar-I, a new phenomenon appeared in international
relations. League of Nations was formed with aim to provide collective security. It was decided
that incursion are state will be checked collectively. However, balance of power system was
proved too incompatible with the concept of collective security. League proved failure because
of its inherent weakness and tendency of European states to use power politics. British
deliberately opted ignorance policy for German armament against France, Russia, Germany and
Italy. However, the alliances of Italy and Germany had become so powerful that having
miscalculated the balance of power in his favour, Hitler adopted the policy of aggression and
invoked world war-II.
After world war-II, international system changed from multiplying to bipolarity and a number of
alliances were formed by both power blocs to counter the power of other.

Some important points about Balance of power:

1) It is not a constant phenomenon; rather it is subject to continuous change from equilibrium to

disequilibrium.

2) It is not purely an automatic process, as it needs active intervention of man. No state can wait
long enough to a establish balance of power automatically, they must be ready to go to war to
preserve the balance.

3) Real power of balance seldom exists. Its real test is war. If war takes place, it means there was
no balance of power.

4) It is often used as policy making process.

5) Smaller states have nothing to do with balance only big/superior powers are involved in it and
they utilize smaller sates to maintain and preserve balance of power.

6) For balance of powers, there`s always need of balancer which makes it successful in operation
of system.

Techniques of Balance of Powers:

The balance of power is an uncertain device to achieve equilibrium and operation needs great
prowess techniques and rules which can be emphasized as:

1: Alliance and Counter Alliances:

The most commonly used device to maintain balance has been the alliance. It is a contractual
commitment entered into by two or more states to engage in cooperative military action in
specific circumstances. It has been traditional instrument to counter the strength of the opponent.
A state may form alliance with other weak or powerful states when it feels it is not capable
enough to protect itself. There are two types of alliances; offensive and defensive. Offensive
alliance is aimed to upset the balance of power while defensive alliance restores the balance. The
alliances are built up out of necessity against a common enemy. The alliance may break after the
goal has been achieved. Till 1991, USA and Russia formed several alliances in 1949 and 1955 to
contain and propagate communism respectively.

The essentials of a stable and long lasting alliance include the presence of strong power to
counter the opposite, common history, culture, language, ideology or a common goal. It may be
achieved through defensive strategy to protect a weak state or land area, or it may be offensive
which is intended for obvious reasons, to be secret.
Etente is the most common alternative of alliance. It is form of military liaison. The essence of
Etente is that military commitments are implicit rather than explicit, deriving from a formal
agreement or military collaboration.

Alliances generally lead to counter-alliance e.g. triple alliance (1882) and triple Etente (1907)
but they do play a major role in governing the international relations. Alliances tend to give rise
to suspicion which may provoke a war. In post Second World War period, the two super power
blocs lead to the formation of several collations to counter balance the growing power of the
opponent.

2. Compensation:

Compensation here means giving away or taking away the territory of the loser in the war for the
purpose of maintaining balance of power. Compensation of territorial nature was a common
method for maintaining balance of power during eighteenth and nineteenth century. Territorial
compensations have been made by greater powers at the expense of weak states. This method
was applied in 1815 in Congress of Vienna when after defeat of Napoleon; his territory was
divided among different powers as compensation to their participation in war. In 1919, this
technique was abandoned by President Wilson, when he repudiated the diplomacy of balance of
power by presenting his famous fourteen peace points. However, after World War II, this
technique has been completely given up with the formation of Trusteeship Council under UNO
to supervise such territories.

3. Partition:

Partition means the division of territory in such a way that there is no danger of anyone to
become predominant over others. Poland was partitioned among Russia, Prussia, and Austro-
Hungry in 1772. Turkey was partitioned between Russia and Allied powers after World War I.
Germany was divided between the Russia and the West partitioning it into West Germany and
East Germany.

4. Armament and Disarmament:

Acquisition of weapons and military preparedness are vital for national defense. The importance
of armament increased with development in technology and science and development in nuclear
armament. To attain the balance consistent efforts at disarmament are inevitable. The first step
was taken by Treaty of Versailles; the next efforts were in 1960s and 1970s when East and
West entered into negotiations and Strategic Arms Limitation Talk (SALT) started between US
and Soviet Union. The negotiations further led to many agreements for disarmament.

5. Intervention and Non-intervention:

These techniques are used as last resort. Intervention is dictatorial intereference in internal affairs
of other state or country in order to extract some concession. Italy and Germany intervened
Spanish Civil War in favour of General Franco. Britain intervened in Greece, US intervened in
Cuba, Lebanon and Laos; Soviet Union intervened Hungary, North Korea, and Eastern Europe.
Usually intervention culminates into war.

Non-intervention is a political term meaning virtually the same as intervention. This kind of
policy is followed by small states or great powers that are satisfied with political order and can
very well follow the peaceful methods to maintain balance of power. Britain and France
followed non-innervation in Spanish Civil War (1936-39).

6. Divide and Rule:

This device has been reported by nations who keep their opponent weak by dividing them. This
is a time honoured policy. It was employed by Romans to maintain their control over scattered
people. France used this policy against Germany in 17th-20th century. USSR has adopted this line
of action after World War II to prevent any integration of Europe.

Functions of Balance of Power - A Positive Side

The balance of power may fulfil three historic functions in the modern state systems which are as
under:

(i) The existence of general balance of power has served to prevent system from being
transformed in to a universal empire.

(ii) Existence of local balance of power has preserved independence of states in which no great
power can absorb or dominate a weak state.

(iii) Melding of both balances has enabled institutions on which international orders depend, to
work for the state and regulate the affairs.

Moreover, the concept of balance of power has proved very beneficial in following
respects:

Firstly, maintenance of peace in Europe in absence of collective security is due to balance of

power. No state is sure of its victory thus cannot resort to war in any case.

Secondly, the principle of balance of power has greatly contributed to preservation of modern
state system by guaranteeing independence of weak states. This was ensured by preventing a
single state to become too powerful to threaten the existence of others. Highlighting this point,
Prof. Taylor has observed, No one state has ever been so strong to eat up all the rest; and the
mutual jealousy of great powers has preserved even the small states which could not protect
themselves.

Thirdly, in the absence of any effective machinery to implement international law, balance of
power has extorted obedience of international law.
Criticism:

In spite of the beneficial aspects of balance of power, it has been severely criticized by the
critics, which are as follows:

1. The balance of power has not proved beneficial for the preservation of peace, as the chief
function of the concept is not to preserve peace, but to preserve nation-state. Maintenance of
balance of power needs war, which is the only mean to keep check on the power of a dominant
state.

2. The principle of balance of power has undoubtedly tended to operate in favour of super
powers at the expense of small states. Balance of power is maintained through absorption and
partition of small states, as in case of Poland in 1772.

3. The balance of power is brutal principle, from the point of view of weak states which are
sacrificed to it. The preservation of international order is not beneficial for the weakers as the
aggrandisement by the strong states against the weak take place.

4. The doctrine of balance of power functions to maintain international order and derives from
the theory of Power Politics, which presents the pursuit of power as the common and over-
riding concern of all the states in pursuing foreign policy.

5. The theory of balance of power wrongly assumes that states are static units. The states
increase their power not only through armaments, conquests, or alliances but also through
industrialization, improvement in national character and several other methods.

6. The theory wrongly assumes that states can shift sides according to their will. Of course, states
can change their sides temporarily, as Italy did after World War I, but generally they are tied to
their friends by political, economic, and psychological interests.

7. The theory of balance of power assumes balance of power is the rule while preponderance of
power is exception. In fact, history shows that there has been preponderance of some power for
most of the time. For example: Britain and USA.

8. The theory of balance of power flouts all norms of international morality and justice and
attaches more importance to self-interest. In other words, it lays emphasis on principles of
expediency rather than justice and fair play.

9. It is assumed that balancer would join the weaker side which is not true. Balancer joins the
weaker side as a part of self-interest instead of maintaining balance.

10. It is difficult to measure the political power of a state at given time. Only way to measure the
political power of state is through a war which is not conducive to peace establishment.
Conclusion:

The balance of power has not attempted to maintain peace but ultimately increased the power
struggle and divided the states into hostile camps. Despite of its demerits, the concept cannot be
completely ignored. The existence of multiple-state system necessitates its preservation through
collective security or balance of power. As Palmer and Perkins said, As long as nation-state
system is the prevailing pattern of international society; the balance of power politics will be
followed in practice.