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1
Introduction
1.1 GENERAL
Under the action of gravity, surface water and groundwater always tend to
ow from higher to lower elevations. Surface water will ow over solid and
through permeable formations, and its volume and velocity are a function of
the available supply and the uid head. Groundwater can move only
through a pervious material (fractured or ssured rock or soils with
interconnected open voids), so its ow characteristic is also a function of
formation permeability. Groundwater elevation varies as the supply source
varies and can be raised or lowered locally by increasing or decreasing the
local supply (naturally by precipitation or articially by pumping a well or
irrigating). In general, over a large surface area, groundwater surface is a
subdued replica of ground surface.
Many construction projects require the lowering of the natural land
surface to provide for foundations, basements, and other low level facilities.
Other projects such as tunnels and shafts require underground construction
of long, open tubes. Whenever such excavations go below groundwater
surface, they disrupt the existing ow patterns by creating a zone of low
pressure potential. Groundwater begins to ow radially toward and into the
excavation. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that construction
FIGURE 1.1 Split spoon sampler. (Reprinted with permission from The
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, copyright ASTM, 100 Bar Harbour Drive,
West Conshohocken, PA, 19428.)
FIGURE 1.2 Thin-wall sampler. (Reprinted with permission from the Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, copyright ASTM, 100 Bar Harbour Drive, West
Conshohocken, PA, 19428.)
tube, the sample volume is about 1/30 cubic foot. Thus, the sample
represents a volume of soil about 75,000 times larger than itself. If, in the
laboratory, a consolidation test is performed on a one-inch thickness of the
sample, then the test sample is assumed to reasonably accurately represent a
volume of soil almost a million times greater than itself. What chance is
there that the sample is 100% representative of the eld soil mass? Would a
sample taken ve feet away give the same results? Twenty feet away?
This discussion points out the fallacy of reporting lab test data to more
than two or three signicant gures, and indicates that test results should be
considered guidelines, not gospel.
The various tests performed on soils and their purposes in design are
shown in Table 1.2.
Rock cores recovered from sampling a homogeneous formation or
stratum are to a high degree representative of solid rock properties (rock
strata tend to be more homogeneous than soil strata). Many different tests
are performed on rock samples for various purposes. However, the only
rock property that can be modied is mass porosity or permeability. While
materials such as siltstone and sandstone may have measurable overall
porosities and permeabilities, the porosity and permeability of strong, solid
rock such as granite depends almost entirely on rock fractures. The only
feasible method of permanent rock mass modication is grouting.
Temporary modication can be made by freezing.
1.6 PERMANENCE
Nothing that we build will last forever. It follows, therefore, that every
structure we build has a nite life (this may be due to actual deterioration of
the structure or because of technical obsolescence). It further follows that
materials and processes used to build structures should last as long as the
structures themselves.
Until recently there hadnt been questions about the permanency of
building materials. The earliest ones in use, stone and wood, outlasted the
builders, and in the case of stone outlasted generations. Later materials such
as metals and concrete have now been in use for centuries, and are thought
of as permanent.
1.8 SUMMARY
As urban and industrial expansion continue, areas that were considered
unsuitable or marginal are being used for foundations, transportation
avenues, and public works. These areas must be treated to improve the
properties of existing soils. Methods of modifying and stabilizing soils are
selected and specied on an individual case basis. In order to avoid post-
construction legal problems, job specications should include unambiguous
criteria for measuring the adequacy of work and use performance.
1.10 PROBLEMS
1.1 Summarize a recent article from a technical publication which
describes a project that required soil stabilization. Were permanence
or safety factor mentioned in the article? Were parts of the technical
description too vague to be of help in doing similar work? In what
areas would you have liked to see more detailed data?