[4] A. Alsaran, A. Celik, C. Celik. Surface Coat. Technol.

2002,

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160, 219.
[5] J. A. Ghani, I. A. Choudhury, H. H. Hasan. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 2004, 145, 84.
[6] C. B. Srinivasan, N. L. Narsimhan, S. V. Ilango. Cement
Concrete Res. 2003, 33, 1287.
[7] P. J. Ross. McGraw-Hill Book Company, United States,
1988.
[8] J. P. Kruth, P. Mercelis, J. Van Vaerenbergh, L. Froyen,
M. Rombouts. In 1st International Conference on Advance
Research in Virtual and Rapid Prototyping, Leiria, Spain,
Fig. 5. Pareto Diagram for Density.
Oct 1-4, pp. 59-70, 2003.
[9] J. P. Kruth, L. Froyen, S. Kumar, M. Rombouts, J. Van
Vaerenbergh. 10th French Rapid Prototyping Conference,
Paris, France, September 14-15, 2004.

______________________

Database and Selection Method

for Portable Power Sources**
Fig. 6. Pareto Diagram for Surface Roughness. By Liang Fu, Tian Jian Lu* and John E. Huber

A power source is a device that supplies energy to an

These are crucial parameters and their behaviour is briey described below.
Scan speed is the speed by which laser beam scans over the powder bed during
laser sintering. The higher the value of scan speed, the less time the laser beam
will get to interact with the powder bed and it will give less transfer of heat energy
necessary for melting and subsequently sintering of the powders. At the other
extreme, lower value of scan speed can give rise to vapourisation of the powders
and will decrease the production speed of a product.
Scan Spacing is the distance between two consecutive laser scan tracks on the
powder bed surface. Higher value of scan spacing will not allow all powder area
between successive scan tracks to be sintered by the laser beam. Narrow value of
scan spacing will make some powder area to be over exposed to the laser beam.
Therefore, the scan spacing should be such to cover all the aimed powder area
while not over exposing some powder. The value of scan spacing is strongly
dependent on the spot size of the laser beam. Layer thickness is another important
parameter. It is the thickness of the successive layers of powder bed. Higher value
of layer thickness does not allow enough laser energy to spread through the layer
into the supporting under-layer such as to ensure good connection between
successive layers. With a small layer thickness, there is apprehension that the
powder layer will not be able to remain uniform during its deposition. Smaller
layer thickness also increases the build time significantly and negates the
'rapidity' of Rapid Prototyping.
The levels for Scan Speed, Scan Spacing and Layer Thickness selected for
experimentation are 60, 80, 100 mm/s ; 0.10, 0.15, 0.20 mm ; 0.10, 0.15, 0.20 mm
respectively and are arranged in column no. 1, 3 and 4 respectively of the
orthogonal array L9(34). Column 2 could not be used as there were only three
input parameters though it was planned to be used for the parameter Laser Power
which has been kept constant at a maximum of 60 W in the present plan.[9]
Received: February 10, 2005
Final version: February 28, 2005
[**] The authors would like to thank Prof. Mike Ashby for his
[1] S. Kumar. JOM 2003, 55 (10), 43.
[2] W. Y. Fowlkes, C. M. Creveling. Addison-Wesley Publish-
ing Company, Reading Massachusetts 01867, 1995.
[3] H.-J. Yang, P. J. Hwang, S. H. Lee. Scripta Mater 1999, 41,
1229.
application, normally by converting energy from an available
form to another, required form. For example solar cells convert
solar radiation energy into electrical energy: further examples
of energy conversion are shown in Figure 1. Portable appli-
cations need careful attention to power problems, because their
energy supply is limited, whilst the design of the application is
very sensitive to the weight, size and cost of the power supply.
This makes the selection among the available power sources for
portable applications particularly competitive. In the present
study, attention is restricted to those power sources that can
[*] L. Fu, Dr J. E. Huber, Dr. T. J. Lu
Department of Engineering
University of Cambridge
Trumpington St., Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
E-mail: TJL21@cam.ac.uk
Dr. T. J. Lu
School of Aerospace
Xian Jiaotong University
Xian 710049, P. R. China
invaluable input and help during various stages of this research.
TJL would also like to thank the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 10328203) and the National
Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2006CB601202)
for partial financial support.

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Fig. 1. Some energy conversions and the devices that perform the conversion. Portable power sources are highlighted with
square boxes.
directly supply electrical energy to a portable device. From
Figure 1, batteries, fuel cells, solar cells, and portable gen-
erators are potentially suitable. Batteries and fuel cells are able
to store energy in a form which they then convert to electrical
energy, whilst solar cells use ambient radiation. However,
generators typically require an extra, initial step to produce the
kinetic energy they use: heat engines and spring or weight
driven systems are examples. This added complexity makes
generators unsuitable in many portable applications and thus
in the present study only batteries, fuel cells and solar cells are
compared. These three classes of power source compete
directly and their properties and design have been studied
extensively.[13] In order to achieve optimal performance, some
power supplies are specialised for a particular application,
such as medical use, watches, calculators, automobiles,
satellites, and others. More generally, an application whose
power requirements are supplied by any one of batteries, fuel
cells, or solar cells, could equally work with either of the other
sources, if appropriate design modifications are made.
The successful design of an engineering application often
depends on the proper selection of a matching power system.
However, there is no widely accepted method for power source
selection at present, and there appears to be a paucity of research
in this area. Rational selection methods have been developed
for materials, processes,[46] actuators and sensors.[710] These
methods exploit computer databases of material or manufac-
turer's data, combined with graphical methods of comparing
performance. The aim of this paper is to develop a similar
selection procedure for power sources, suitable for the early
stages of the application design process. The basic principle of
selection is that the performance characteristics of the power
756  2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources
source must match the performance requirements of the
application. The requirements of an application may be stated
in terms of the volume, mass, voltage, continuous current,
operating temperature, working time and cost of the power
source. Given a particular application, it may be possible to
match these requirements directly, using manufacturer's data.
However, when designing a new application (or considering a
class of applications), a comparison of the normalized char-
acteristics of power sources, such as power density or energy
per unit cost is more appropriate.
In this paper, a database of existing power sources is built
using the Cambridge Engineering Selector (CES) software.
The characteristics of various kinds of power sources are
gathered from manufacturers' data and from the published
literature, processed and built into the database using a
relational structure.[11] This allows both the selection of a
power source given a set of requirements, or the identification
of the power sources already used for a given type of
application. First, the characteristics of power sources and the
types of power sources under consideration are classified. Then
the database and its application using selection charts are
discribed. Finally the use of these charts is demonstrated in a
case study of the selection of a power source for a mobile phone.
Characteristics of Power Sources: Power sources have many
forms and types; in order to make a consistent comparison
between widely varying devices, we define a set of common
characteristics. These characteristics can be divided into three
subsets: basic characteristics, performance characteristics and
normalized characteristics.
The basic characteristics are mass m, volume V and cost c.
These give no indication of the power performance of the
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Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources

device but are nevertheless essential considerations for many consideration; thus a meaningful comparison can be made

portable applications. The data are available for each specific
power source from the manufacturer. A problem arises in
specifying the mass and volume of fuel cells: often the fuel
capacity of the cell can be varied by modifying the fuel
container. In order to simplify the analysis, we define the
characteristics of fuel cell on the basis of a mass of fuel equal to
the mass of the cell itself. In many portable applications, the
mass or volume of the fuel is comparable to that of the cell itself,
so that the values given are realistic. In applications where the
mass or volume of the fuel is much greater than that of the cell,
care should be taken to account for this. The cost is taken to
be the current list price per unit for a small batch order.
The performance characteristics (see Tab. 1) quantify the
ability of the power source to match various operating
requirements. These characteristics, such as the average
voltage and maximum continuous current, are normally
available directly from the manufacturer's data. The normal-
ized characteristics shown in Table 1 are derived as the ratios of
performance to basic characteristics. These allow a comparison
of performance that takes weight, volume or cost into
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between different types of power source.
In Table 2, a group of performance characteristics are
separately defined, which are specific to individual types of
power source. These do not allow a comparison among the
different types, but are essential to a final selection process. For
example, the self-discharge property is relevant to selection
among batteries, but does not apply to fuel cells or solar cells.
Care is needed in defining the performance characteristics
and specifying their values. For batteries, the capacity Q is
normally given in Ampere hours and defined at a particular
value of operating current. We take this operating current to be
the maximum continuous current Imax if no other value is
specified by the manufacturer. For fuel cells, Imax is normally
specified; the quantity of fuel and rate of fuel consumption then
define a working time, t. We then calculate an approximate
capacity using Q = Imax t. For solar cells a similar approach can
be taken to define the capacity. Since the working lifetime of a
solar cell is typically much greater than the lifetime of common
portable applications, defining the capacity Q in terms of the
working lifetime of the cell would give unrealistically high

Table 1. Common characteristics of power sources.

Performance Characteristic Definition

Average voltage (V) [V] The average value of the power source potential difference during the
period of discharge, or operation.

Max continuous current The maximum current a power source can afford continuously when
(Imax ) [A] the nominal voltage is valid; note that this is confined by the max power
of the power source.

The total charge that a power source can deliver under specified
Capacity (Q) [Ahr] conditions (maximum rate of discharge). Imax for batteries and fuel
cells. Imax 1 Year 20 % for solar cells.

Maximum power The maximum rate at which a power source can supply energy, given
(Pmax) [W] by Pmax = VI max

Operating temperature range The range of temperature of the environment of a power source specified
(Tmax, Tmin) [C] by the manufacturer for the nominal average voltage and capacity to be
valid.

The total energy QV available from the power source. For a secondary
Energy (E) [J] power source this is its energy available from a single charge. For a
primary or a renewable power source, this is the lifetime energy.

Lifetime energy Equals to energy (E) for primary batteries and solar cells; cycle life energy
Elife [J] (secondary batteries); max power lifetime (fuel cells ).

Efficiency The ratio of the useful energy provided by a power source to the total
(g) [%] energy available to the power source.

Normalized Characteristic Definition

Energy density The energy stored per unit mass (E / m) or per unit volume (E / V).
(mass or volumetric)
3 1
[Jm ] or [Jkg ]

Lifetime energy/cost The amount of energy delivered in the lifetime of the source per unit
[J/$] cost (Elife / c).

Power density The maximum power per unit mass (Pmax / m) or per unit volume
(mass or volume) (Pmax / V)
3 1
[Wm ] or [Wkg ]

Power/cost [W/$] The maximum power per unit cost (Pmax / c) of a power source.

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 Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources

Table 2. Specific characteristics of power sources.

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Specific characteristic Definition

Shelf life [yrs] The time period a primary battery can be stored after manufacturing
so that it still can provide a required amount of electricity (usually
between70% to 80%) when connected to a load.

Cycle life Number of cycles for a secondary battery, such that 80% of the original
capacity remains. Each cycle consists of discharging to a set state and
complete recharging. Note that the cycle life is a function of the depth
of discharge.

Self discharge [%] The percentages of capacity drop in the state-of-charge of a battery, over
a period of time, due to the internal electro-chemical losses.

Memory effect A phenomenon in which a secondary battery operated in successive

[Yes/No] cycles to the same, but less than full, depth of discharge temporarily loses
the rest of its capacity at normal voltage levels.

Stack life [yrs] Stack is a series-coupled assembly of cells, it is a term used primarily for
fuel cells. Stack life is the cumulative period of time that a fuel cell stack
may operate before its output deteriorates below a useful minimum
value.

lifetime energy values. In this study, values of Q for solar cells
are defined as Imax 20 % 1year, corresponding to the charge
flow in one year of operation at an average 20 % of peak power.
In order to compare the energy density of various power
sources, a characteristic Energy, E, is first defined as the total
energy available from the power source during a single
discharge, given by E = Q V where V is the average voltage.
The quantities E/V and E/m then define the volumetric
energy density and mass energy density respectively. Note that
for some power sources, such as primary batteries, a single
discharge is equivalent to the device lifetime, so that E equals
the lifetime energy Elife. In secondary batteries, the cycle life
defines the number of full recharges in the lifetime of the power
source, so that Elife = E cycle life. For fuel cells, a stack life is
typically specified, giving the working life of the cell at full
power (assuming ample fuel supply) so that Elife can be defined
as the maximum power times the stack life (see Tab. 1 and 2).
Overview of Power Sources: As described in Section 1, we
mainly consider three types of power sources in this paper:
batteries, fuel cells and solar cells. A brief description of each
type is given below.
Batteries: Batteries have a long history of development and
are the most standardized product on the power sources
market. [12,13] Their principal advantages are efficiency
(80 %90 %, compared with 15 %-30 % for solar cells and
35 %70 % for fuel cells), convenience, and reliability, with
little or no maintenance required. They presently comprise the
largest portion of the market for portable power sources.
Primary batteries, which cannot be recharged, typically
have high mass energy density, long storage life and low cost,
compared to secondary (rechargeable) batteries. They are thus
well suited for mass produced portable applications. Second-
ary batteries have a massive advantage in lifetime energy per
unit cost, which is approximately 100 times higher than that of
primary batteries. This makes them suitable for applications
where the lifetime energy requirements exceed the specifica-
tions of most primary batteries (e.g. mobile phones and
portable computers or music players). The energy density
performance of some secondary batteries is now comparable to
that of primary batteries and this increases their suitability for
portable applications. When selecting a battery for a portable
device, a compromise is needed between performance and
cost, with excess or redundant performance leading to
additional cost or waste.[12,14]
The principal disadvantage of batteries is the use of
hazardous substances and the difficulty of recycling their
components sustainably. Limited life, low energy density and
high cost (compared with fuel cells and solar cells) also present
challenges for battery development.
Fuel cells: Fuel cells were originally developed with niche
applications such as subsidiary power supply in submarines
and spacecraft. Within the last few years, fuel cells have gained
increasing attention for portable applications owing to their
intrinsic advantages over batteries. The power output, capacity
and operation time of a fuel cell can readily be tailored to
the requirements of the application by using a fuel cell stack.
Furthermore, fuel cells have the potential for high energy
density, quick refueling (or recharging), long service life, and
low cost. Their use of hazardous materials is less problematic
than that of batteries, and their long lifetime is an advantage for
sustainable use. Consequently a growth in the use of fuel cells is
expected in portable applications.
A practical advantage of fuel cells is their flexibility in terms
shape: the fuel container can often be shaped advantageously
for compact portable applications. Some small fuel cells are
currently used as a substitute or a supplement to batteries.
However, many technical challenges remain which limit the
applications of fuel cells. The cost per unit energy is still high, and
safety issues associated with refuelling and operating temper-
atures still pose serious obstacles to their widespread use.

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Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources
Solar cells: Solar cells use a thin layer of photovoltaic material
on a substrate such as glass to generate electrical power directly
when exposed to light. Their principal advantage is their
environmental benefit and long service life. This is particularly
advantageous in remote applications where a refuellable or
fixed energy supply is inappropriate. They have been exploited
where low power requirements, a good solar source and their
simplicity of operation outweigh the high cost of the photo-
voltaic system, such as in satellites or desert power supplies.
Applications with very low power requirements, such as
digital electronics can also benefit from the convenience of solar
cells.
A significant disadvantage of solar cells for portable
applications is the low power density they offer, requiring a
large collecting area for power applications. This immediately
limits their suitability for the most compact portable appli-
cations. The costs of modules are also high in comparison to
batteries of similar power. Advances in efficiency may offset
these limitations, however, the strong dependency of perfor-
mance on orientation and local lighting conditions are still
limitations for portable use.
Power Source Database: A database with a relational
structure[11,8,7] has been built for batteries, fuel cells and solar
cells. Data for other types of power source are at present being
collected and will be added to the database. The basic,
performance, and normalized characteristics described in
Section 2 are given for each power source in the database. A
typical data table from the database is shown in Figure 2.
Additionally, specific characteristics relating to some power
sources are included to assist with final selection. The database
Fig. 2. Sample datasheet in the power source database.
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2005, 7, No. 8 http://www.aem-journal.de
structure organizes power sources by type (battery, fuel cell,
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solar cell). Within each type of power source, several classes are
identified; for example, Li-Ion batteries, Ni-Cd batteries and so
forth. Individual power sources are the members within each
class. This data structure corresponds to the taxonomical
structure described by Ashby et al.[6] with power sources as the
kingdom, and the type of power source corresponding to a
family. For each member of the database, additional links are
provided to list the manufacturers, accessories (such as
chargers) and typical applications.
The presence of quantitative characteristics, applications,
and manufacturers in the database allows selection by each of
the three strategies described by Ashby et al.[6]: free searching
using quantitative analysis, selection using prior expertise, and
selection by analogy. The free searching approach uses an
analysis based on quantified constraints and objectives to select
a power source from all possible members of the database. For
example, the power source requirements in terms of size,
weight and voltage, combined with the objective of maximising
energy per unit volume can be used to select an optimal power
source. An alternative approach, selection using prior exper-
tise, consists of matching the details of the application to a
particular power source already in use for that application. This
does not allow the generation of new solutions, or solutions to
new problems, but allows existing solutions to be applied
systematically. For example, given a task such as powering a
wheelchair, the database allows the user to find what type of
battery has previously been used in wheelchair applications.
Finally, selection by analogy involves using index-words from
the problem description to find solutions to similar problems.
For example, if a power supply for a pace-maker is
needed, a more general search for power supplies
in medical applications can be used. This would
generate a list of power supplies for such applications
as hearing aids, wheelchairs and so forth. Examina-
tion of the power sources for these applications may
lead to a new solution. Note that the entries in the
database list only power sources that are readily
available in the current market. Thus the perfor-
mance limitations that the database imposes when a
power source is selected are not fundamental limita-
tions of the technology instead they indicate the
limits of what is already available. These are practical
limits in the sense that an application which requires a
power source with performance beyond the indi-
cated limits would require a new design of power
source, with extra associated cost. Further details
of the database, including data for a wider range of
power sources are given by Fu.[15]
Power Source Selection with Performance Charts:
Several factors must be considered when selecting
the best power source for a particular application.
Typically, there is no single power source that
combines optimum performance under all operating
conditions and in all characteristics so that a
 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 759

compromise must be sought. The characteristics of each
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available power source must be weighed against the appli-
cation requirements, allowing the power source to be selected
which best meets these requirements. The selection of the
power source should be considered during the early stages of
the application design, so that a variety of potential solutions
can be compared. In this way, effective compromises can be
made between the power source capabilities and the appli-
cation requirements.
Using the characteristics described in Section 2, charts can
be constructed which show the trade-off between distinct
characteristics. These charts then provide an overview of the
performance of a wide range of power sources. Figure 3 shows
the average voltage and maximum continuous current char-
acteristics of the power sources in the database, constructed
using the CES software. Note that the database allows the data
for types or classes to be gathered together and shown as a
single performance bubble on the charts. In Figure 3, this
feature is used to show all solar cells grouped together (and
likewise all fuel cells) while several distinct classes of batteries
are shown. It is evident that batteries have the widest range of
maximum continuous current, due possibly to the wide range
of classes of battery, resulting from a long history of
development. Among the batteries, Lead Acid batteries have
the highest current output capability a factor that corresponds
to their use as the standard battery type for automotive engine
start. The software allows lines of constant product V Imax to be
added to the Voltage-Current chart, thus indicating power
sources with equal continuous power values. A 1W power line
is added for later use in a case study. High power is available
from both lead acid batteries, and fuel cell stacks, suggesting
that fuel cells may be a potential competitor to Lead Acid
batteries in high power applications. Silver Oxide and Zinc Air
Fig. 3. Average voltage versus maximum continuous current chart for various power sources in the database.
760  2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources
batteries have a relatively low power output; hence they are
mainly suitable for applications with low current drain, such as
hearing aids.
In Figure 4, the lifetime energy per unit cost for each power
source is shown against its mass energy density. High values of
both of these normalized characteristics are desirable for
portable applications. A large gap exists between primary
batteries (the cluster containing Carbon-Zinc and others) and
secondary batteries (the cluster containing Lead Acid). This
arises because the cycle life of secondary batteries is typically
102103 times, giving them a significantly larger lifetime
energy per unit cost despite their high initial cost. As renewable
power sources, fuel cells and solar cells could be expected to
have an energy per unit cost equal to or greater than that of
secondary batteries, and this is apparent in Figure 4. Note that
the performance bubble for solar cells corresponds to a lifetime
of 1 Year operating at an average 20 % maximum power; an
arrow indicates the direction in which the performance
bubble would translate for lifetime greater than 1 Year. Future
improvements in solar cell and fuel cell technology are likely
to increase their lifetime energy per unit cost values.
The mass energy density is shown against mass in Figure 5.
Evidently, solar cells offer the greatest mass energy density,
which is attractive for weight sensitive applications such as
the power supplies of satellites. As with Figure 4, there is a
clustering together of performance among primary batteries
and likewise among secondary batteries. However, in Figure 5,
there is no clear performance gap between secondary and
primary batteries, although the energy density of secondary
batteries is typically less than that of primary batteries. This
explains why some portable devices with extreme sensitivity to
weight, such as hearing aids, often use primary batteries. Lines
of constant energy are shown in Figure 5. Thus Figure 5,
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Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources
Fig. 4. Lifetime energy per unit cost versus mass energy density for various power sources.
Fig. 5. Mass energy density versus mass for various power sources.
allows, for example, the selection of a power source with
minimum weight subject to a minimum energy constraint, or
vice versa, the selection of a minimum weight power source,
subject to a constraint on the stored energy. A line of 7 kJ
constant energy is shown for later use.
The volumetric energy density is shown against volume in
Figure 6. This is useful for selecting power sources where the
size of the source is a critical constraint. The volumetric energy
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2005, 7, No. 8
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density of secondary batteries is seen to be smaller than that of
primary batteries, and hence the latter are preferable in the
design of the most compact devices. In Figure 6, solar cells
appear to have a great advantage in volumetric energy density.
Note, however, that this advantage must be offset against their
limitations of shape, since they are normally thin panels.
Often, it is of importance to minimize both the mass and the
size of a portable device. The selection of an appropriate power
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Fig. 6. Volumetric energy density versus volume for various power sources.
source can then be made by cross-plotting the mass energy
density against the volumetric energy density, as shown in
Figure 7. Zinc Air batteries combine high mass energy density
and greatest volumetric energy density of all battery classes.
This is the main reason why most hearing aids currently on the
market use them as their power source. Considering only
energy density, Lithium Thionyl Chloride batteries also appear
to be suitable for hearing aids, from Figure 7. Note, however,
that the minimum size of readily available Lithium Thionyl
Chloride batteries is about 3 cm 3, which is an obstacle for
Fig. 7. Volumetric energy density versus mass energy density for various power sources.
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Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources
miniature applications. As discussed in Section 4, this limita-
tion is not fundamental, but is a practical limitation of the
current market. Considering secondary batteries, the Li-ion
batteries have outstanding mass and volumetric energy
density values. This is consistent with their use as the preferred
power source for many mobile phones and notebook comput-
ers.
The selection charts shown in Figure 3 to 7 are examples
taken from the wide range of charts that can be constructed
using the CES software. They allow a systematic procedure for
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Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources
the quantitative selection of a power source using multiple
constraints. Each chart can be used to eliminate those power
sources that cannot meet the demands of the application. This
screening process selects a small group of potential solutions,
from which a single power source may be selected to maximise
a given objective function. If several power sources offer similar
performance, a final selection can be made by considering
specific characteristics and the details of the application design.
An example of this method is described in Section 6.
Case Study: Battery Selection for Mobile Phones: As a portable
communication device, a mobile phone has its own unique
requirements for the power supply. The aim here is to find the
power source that can best satisfy those requirements. In the
present case study, we limit the selection procedure to batteries
in order to illustrate detailed selection within a single power
source type. Some comments about the suitability of fuel cells
and solar cells are also made. Starting by choosing between
primary and secondary batteries, the selection quickly narrows
the target to secondary batteries. These candidates are
subsequently compared and analyzed.
Objective and constraints: We consider the design of an
advanced, light-weight mobile phone with the objective of a
minimum mass of power source. A driving factor in the
development of mobile phones is the demand for compact and
light-weight designs, whilst the energy demands increase
with the use of larger screens and the incorporation of extra
functions such as digital cameras. Thus, in addition to the
minimum mass objective, several constraints act to limit the
selection: The power requirement is set at about 1 W minimum,
whilst the volume occupied by the power source must be no
greater than 20 cm 3. The energy storage of the power source
must be sufficient for about 2 h of talk time, at 1 W power
consumption, giving approximately 7 kJ minimum. Addition-
ally, the lifetime energy of the source should be sufficient to
Fig. 8. Lifetime energy per unit cost versus cost for batteries.
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supply the lifetime energy needs of the application: typically
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about 12 MJ. Finally, the cost of the power source should not
be greater than about $ 10$ 20.
Primary Batteries versus Secondary Batteries: The advantages
and disadvantages of primary (non-rechargeable) batteries
compared to secondary batteries have been described in
Section 3. The overwhelming factors relevant to the current
selection problem are the lifetime energy, Elife, of at least 1 MJ,
and the cost. Figure 8 shows the energy per unit cost versus the
cost for several classes of primary and secondary batteries. A
line of 1 MJ constant lifetime energy is shown on the figure.
This makes a clear division between primary and secondary
batteries, indicating that this application will demand either
the frequent recharging of secondary batteries or replacement
of primary batteries. A high value of energy per unit cost is
desirable, and Figure 8 then indicates a clear advantage for
secondary batteries: the cost of frequently changing the
primary battery will be much higher than that of recharging a
secondary battery. Still referring to Figure 8, it can be noted that
many secondary batteries lie comfortably below the $20 cut-off
line. A significant shortcoming of secondary batteries is the
requirement to charge them before use, giving the inconve-
nience of a lack of immediate readiness. However, this must be
weighed against the inconvenience and environmental cost
of changing and disposing of primary batteries. Taking these
factors into consideration, secondary batteries are more
suitable than primary batteries for the present application.
There are four main classes of secondary batteries on the
market: Ni-Cd (Nickel-Cadmium), Ni-MH (Nickel-Metal
Hydride), Li-Ion (Lithium Ion), and Lead Acid batteries. In
the following section a selection is made between these classes
using the several constraints and minimum mass objective.
Selection among secondary batteries: In order to select sources
that satisfy the minimum power requirement, a 1 W constant
 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 763
 Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources
power line is shown on Figure 3. Of the secondary batteries, all
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four classes can satisfy this constraint. Note also that both fuel
cells and solar cells can satisfy this requirement. Next consider
the minimum stored energy requirement, and the maximum
volume constraint. Using Figure 6, lines at 7 kJ energy and
20 cm 3 volume are used to exclude any unsuitable power
sources. This selection indicates that Lead Acid batteries are
typically too large for the current application. However, the
smallest available Lead Acid batteries are fairly close to the
required size and so the development of a suitable Lead
Acid battery should not be entirely excluded as a possibility.
Similarly, the most compact current fuel cells are still too large,
but again they miss the constraint only marginally. All three of
Ni-Cd, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries can satisfy the constraints,
but it is interesting to observe that in all three cases, the
envelope of performance of the batteries comes only just within
the selection region. This application is technically challenging
for secondary batteries, and a major driver for the development
of fuel cells is the fact that battery technology is not keeping
pace with the growing power demands of such applications.
Figure 6 also suggests that solar cells may just be suitable,
although the requirements of energy storage and sufficient
solar panel area would constitute a major practical difficulty for
this application.
Now consider the objective of minimising the mass of the
power source. Given a fixed energy storage requirement, the
objective is equivalent to maximising the mass energy density.
Figure 7 indicates that from the shortlist of suitable batteries,
Li-Ion batteries offer the greatest mass energy density, about 1.5
times greater than that of the best Ni-Cd battery. A minimum
volumetric energy density constraint of 7 kJ/20 cm 3 is also
shown on the figure. The Li-Ion batteries perform well in both
mass energy density and volumetric energy density leading to
a lightweight and compact solution. Referring back to Figure 5,
an estimate of the mass of a suitable Li-Ion battery can be made
by constructing a 7 kJ stored energy line and noting the range of
mass indicated by its intersection with the Li-Ion batteries
performance bubble. This suggests that the required battery
will have mass in the range 15 g to 35 g. A check on the cost-
efficiency of the selected battery class can be made using
Figure 4. This shows a significant disadvantage of Li-Ion
compared to Ni-Cd batteries in terms of the total lifetime
energy cost.
Further considerations: A final comparison can be made using
several practical considerations: 1) operating voltage; 2) self-
Table 3. Comparison of Li-ion, NiMH and NiCd batteries for a mobile phone application.
Battery type Battery
voltage
Li-Ion 3.7
NiMH 1.2
NiCd 1.2
764  2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim http://www.aem-journal.de
discharge; 3) cycle life; and 4) charging issues. Table 3 shows
the performance of Li-Ion, Ni-MH and Ni-Cd batteries for the
first three of these considerations. Li-ion batteries have an
operating voltage of 3.7 V, about three times greater than
the voltage of Ni-Cd or Ni-MH batteries. This gives a practical
advantage in that a simple, single cell design can be used. A
further advantage of Li-Ion batteries for this application is their
low rate of self-discharge. This minimizes the loss of energy
during stand-by time, an important feature for a portable
device with an occasional pattern of usage. Li-ion batteries
typically lose only 5 % of their capacity in the first month; this is
low enough to obviate the need for frequent top-up re-
charging. The cycle-life depends strongly on the depth of each
discharge, with shallow discharges providing more cycles than
deep discharges, due to the electrode damage caused by
complete discharge. Depending upon the pattern of use, a
battery can show a range of behaviour, from gradual decline in
performance with cycling to sudden failure. Table 3 compares
the average cycle lives of the three batteries based on repeated
moderate discharges. The Ni-Cd battery has the greatest cycle
life, followed by the Li-Ion battery and then Ni-MH. This
suggests that Ni-Cd batteries are suitable for the mobile phone
application, when the constraint of minimum weight is not
over-riding. It is also worth considering the memory-effect,
whereby the extent of previous discharge limits subsequent
discharges. Whilst a full discharge harms the battery, a deep
discharge is desirable in order to minimize the memory effect.
However in a consumer electronics application careful
observance of the optimum charging regime is unlikely. This
factor gives a considerable advantage to Li-Ion batteries, where
the memory effect is negligible.
A final consideration is the issue of charging each of the
batteries under consideration.
The three classes (Ni-Cd, Ni-MH and Li-Ion) have different
requirements for charging current, voltage and temperature
conditions, which can be achieved by using a charger
specifically designed for each class. Chargers designed for
Ni-Cd batteries also work well for Ni-MH, whilst Li-Ion
batteries need a distinct charger which accurately terminates
the charging process. This makes Li-Ion battery chargers
somewhat more complex and expensive than Ni-Cd and
Ni-MH chargers. This factor is compensated by a high charging
efficiency, resulting in compact and economic chargers, with
short charging times (typically 3 h compared with 12 h for
Ni-Cd). Consequently, there is no overwhelming advantage or
Number Self-discharge Self-discharge Average
required for rate rate cycle life
application (first 24 hours) (average)
1 0.17% 3% 500-1000
3 12% 25% 300-500
3 10% 15% 1500
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2005, 7, No. 8
Fu et al./Database and Selection Method for Portable Power Sources
disadvantage for any of the three classes due to the charging
consideration, though the practicalities for each class differ.
Summary: The Li-Ion class of batteries provides the best
overall performance for minimum mass design, given the set of
constraints used in this case study. There are cost and cycle-life
disadvantages for Li-Ion batteries, suggesting that Ni-Cd
batteries are close competitors where minimum mass is not
an overwhelming consideration, and particularly where cost is
to be minimized. In fact, commercial mobile phones do follow
this trend, with Ni-Cd batteries dominating at the low-cost end
of the market. However, the issue of cost in Li-Ion batteries is
becoming decreasingly significant with advances in technolo-
gy. Furthermore, mobile phone designs are developing in the
direction of increased integration with other technologies such
as the internet and wireless control. This is likely to increase
the overall cost of mobile phones and thus make the battery
component cost a less significant factor. It is thus expected that
increasing use of Li-Ion batteries will be found in mobile
phones.
A benefit of the use of selection charts in this case study is
that they make apparent potential competitors for an appli-
cation. Here, solar cells and fuel cells were seen to offer
potentially improved performance. However fuel cells do not
currently satisfy the basic requirement of compactness whilst
solar cells have the practical disadvantage associated with the
need to store energy.
Conclusions: There is a vast range of power sources, with
performance characteristics differing by several orders of
magnitude. Given this range, the selection of the optimal
power source is an important stage in the design of many
applications. A simple, rational method for selecting power
sources has been described. A database of existing power
sources has been constructed, allowing quantitative selection,
and the comparison of power sources by application or by
manufacturer. Key performance characteristics have been
identified, and selection charts constructed, allowing a
graphical comparison of performance. The selection charts
can be used to identify optimal performance against a given
objective and a set of constraints. They can also be used to
identify competition between existing power sources for the
same application, or regions of performance that are inacces-
sible using currently available technology. The database allows
for a comparison of different types of power source at a generic
level (for example solar cells compared with batteries), or for a
detailed comparison between different classes of power source
of the same type (for example Ni-MH batteries compared with
Li-Ion batteries). The strategy has been demonstrated using a
case study on the selection of batteries for a light-weight, high
performance mobile phone, with Li-Ion batteries identified as
an optimal solution, and Ni-Cd batteries indicated as close
competitors.
Received: March 01, 2005
Final version: March 15, 2005
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2005, 7, No. 8 http://www.aem-journal.de
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 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 765