INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE SCHOLARS, Vol-1, issue-03, pp.

200-209, 2017
Advance access publication- 23 August, 2017
This paper is available online free of all access charges

ISSN NO- 2456-8929

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE SCHOLARS

The House of the Written Word

RESEARCH PAPER

BREAD MAKING AND ITS PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Astha verma1*

1. Chandigarh University, Department of Biotechnology, Chandigarh

Received- 28 July 2017; Revised 19 August 2017; Accepted- 23 August 2017

Abstract- Both the physical and chemical characteristics of flours affect their quality and the
subsequent products from them. The comparative evaluation of particle size, moisture
content, bulk density, colour, water absorption capacity, pasting viscosity, fat and protein
contents of wheat, cassava, maize and cowpea flours were determined using standard
methods. Breads were produced from 200:100:100, 100:50:50, 200:50:50, 100:25:25,
100:100:100, 50:50:50 ratios of wheat maize and rice. Temperature and relative humidity
have an important effect on yeast growth and fermentative capacity. Most strains of S.
cerevisiae used for baking have an optimum temperature of about 36C to 39C. Relative
humidity must also be controlled, usually at about 70% to 80%. The fact that the addition of
even small amounts (10%) of rice flour improved the texture, and also slowed the retro
gradation of rice bread indicates the need for identifying an appropriate rice cultivar or
combinations of two or more cultivars for rice bread application.

Keywords- Bread, Flour, wheat, maize, rice, characteristics.

INTRODUCTION-

Bread is one of the oldest known recipes to man. It has been around for several millennia.
The recent low-carbohydrate craze has given bread a bad reputation, but not all breads are
created equal. There are more varieties of bread than there are supplement companies [1].
200 Corresponding Author- Astha Verma| Copyright | IJSS| 2017
The fermentation that occurs during bread manufacturing is different from most other food
fermentations in that the purpose is not to extend the shelf-life of the raw materials, but rather
is a means of converting the grain or wheat into a more functional and consumable forms [2].
In fact, in contrast to dairy, meat, vegetable or wine fermentations, where the starting material
is much more perishable than the finished product, the raw material for bread-making, i.e.,
cereal grains are better preserved than the bread that is ultimately produced. The yeast used
for leavening bread is Saccharomyces cerevisiae the same species used for brewing alcoholic
beverages.

Bread is a staple food prepared by cooking dough of flour and water and frequently
additional ingredients. Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed,
fried, or baked on an unoiled skillet. It may be leavened salt, fat and leavening agents such as
yeast and baking soda are common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients
such as milk, egg, sugar, spice, fruit vegetables (such as onion), nuts (such as walnuts) or
seeds (such as poppy seeds). Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods, dating back to the
Neolithic era. The development of leavened bread can probably also be traced to prehistoric
times[3].
Fresh bread is prized for its taste, aroma, quality, appearance and texture. Retaining its
freshness is important to keep it appetizing. Modern bread is sometimes wrapped in paper or
plastic film, or stored in a container such as a breadbox to reduce drying. Bread that is kept in
warm, moist environment is prone to the growth of mold. Bread kept at low temperature, in a
refrigerator for example, will develop mold growth more slowly than bread kept at room
temperature, but will turn stale quickly due to retro gradation. The soft, inner part of bread is
known to breaks and other culinary professional as the crumb, which is not to be confused
with small bits of bread that often fall off, called crumbs. The outer hard portion of bread is
called the crust [4].

Bread is considered to be one of the oldest processed foods by the humanity. In its earliest
forms bread would have been very different from how we see it in industrialized countries
today and it would probably be closest in character to the modern flat breads of the Middle
East [5]. Dough development is a relatively undefined term, which covers complex changes in
bread ingredients, which are set in motion when the ingredients first become mixed. The
changes are associated with the formation of gluten, which requires both the hydration of the
proteins in the flour and the application of energy through the process of kneading. Kneading
is the development of gluten structure in the dough through the application of energy during
mixing [6].

Mixing the dough provides two functions: homogenous distribution of components, and
development of gluten matrix. Gluten is the skeleton of wheat-flour dough and responsible
for gas retention which provides the production of light loaf of bread. Mixing time varies
with the flour, dough temperature, dough consistency, and mixer. Excessive mixing yield a
dough with reduced elasticity and extensibility [7].

During the fermentation process, gas is generated as a part of the metabolic activity of yeast.
Many microorganisms can ferment sugars with the production of carbon dioxide, but the

201 Corresponding Author- Astha Verma| Copyright | IJSS| 2017

organism that seems to function best in dough is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Every live yeast
cell can perform many different chemical reactions, but those of most important are in the
group called fermentation. The most obvious manifestation of these changes is the production
of carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol, but these substances are merely the end result of an
extremely complex series of reactions that are largely controlled by enzymes. Sugars are the
substrates transformed by fermentation [8]. A simplified equation that describes the substrate
and principle and products of the fermentation reaction is:

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Carbon dioxide is responsible for leavening the dough, while ethyl alcohol helps to make up
the complex aroma of the baked products. A large part of these compounds is lost during the
baking and the cooling stages [8]. In yeast leavened doughs, the products of microbial
metabolism modify the dough and are essential for production of light, well-aerated, and
appetizing bread [7].

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Material- Flour, yeast, salt, sugar and water, Measuring cylinder, bowls, knife, aluminium
foil, wire rack, oven.

METHOD-

Manufacturing of Bread-

Mixing- The dough in a single or twin arm, low speed or spiral mixer. Adjust water
temperature to give a final dough temperature of 28C. There was no suitable mixer available
so mixing done by hand.

Fermentation-

Cover the dough to prevent skinning (Forming a crust); keep in warm place for 1hr. during
fermentation the dough changes from a short dense mass into extensible, elastic dough,
capable of holding gas. The time the dough takes to reach the desired stage of development
depends on the yeast level and dough temperature and must be carefully controlled.
Typically, bulk fermentation times of 1hr are used in small bakeries and 3 hrs in larger
bakeries.

Dividing-

Divide the dough into lumps. Normal dividing weights was 460g for 400g bread.

Rounding-

Give a thorough first mould (form into a ball), knocking back or expelling large gas bubbles
to create small cells. This was important as the bread crumb cell structure was created during
the moulding stages.

202 Corresponding Author- Astha Verma| Copyright | IJSS| 2017

Intermediate Proof-

Allow 10-15 minutes, depending on the bread variety being produced. Keep covered with a
polythene sheet or cloth (eg. a clean tea towel) to prevent skinning.

Moulding-

Sheet thinly to expel most of the gas for bread with a regular, small cell structure, more
gentle moulding for bread with an open, random structure. The shape of the final bread was
determined the exact process, i.e. Sausage, ball, etc.

Final proof-

At 43C for about 50 minutes.

Baking-

Baking was done in hot air oven at 235C for 25-40 minute depend on loaf size.

MEASUREMENT OF PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BREAD-

Physical Property-

a. Yield of baked product- the yield in baked product was calculated as the ratio of the
sample weight after ad before baking. i.e.- final weight/Initial weight
b. Weights, heights- the weights and heights of bread samples were determined by
standard methods. I.e. By using weighs machine and normal height measuring scale.
c. Total Solid- it is measure of the amount of material remaining, after all water has
been evaporated. I.e. Material dried/Initial material 100.
d. Moisture content- the sample was heated under specified conditions and loss of
weight is used to calculate the moisture content of sample.
%Moisture = (wt. of wet sample- wt. of dry sample)/ wt. of wet sample wt. of wet
sample.
e. Appearance- surface characteristics of bread contribute to the appearance. The size
and shape of bread were judged by eyes. Completeness of baked bread judged by
appearance of the product.
f. Colour- colour was used as index of the quality of the product. Bread, which were too
brown, were likely to be rejected in anticipated of scorched bitter taste.

Chemical Properties- Biochemical tests identify the main biologically important chemical
compounds. For each test take a small amount of the substance to test, shake it in water in a
test tube. (The substance needs grinding with a pestle and mortar, to break up the cells and
release the cell contents).

a. Benedicts test for reducing sugars- All monosaccharides and most disaccharides
will reduce copper (II) sulphate, producing a precipitate of copper (I) oxide on

203 Corresponding Author- Astha Verma| Copyright | IJSS| 2017

 heating, so they are called reducing sugars. Benedicts reagent is an aqueous solution
of copper (II) sulphate, sodium carbonate and sodium citrate.
Grind up sample. To approx. 2cm of test solution add equal quantity of Benedicts
3

reagent. Shake and heat for a few minutes at 95C in a water bath. A precipitate
indicates reducing sugars. Original pale Blue= no reducing sugar
Brown/Red= reducing sugar.

b. Benedicts test for Non-Reducing sugars- Non-reducing sugars do not reduce

copper sulphate. However, if it is first hydrolysed to its constituent monosaccharides,
it will give a positive Benedicts test. First test a sample for reducing sugars, to see if
there is any present hydrolysis. Then using a separate sample. Boil the test solution
with dilute hydrochloric acid for a few minutes to hydrolyse the glycoside bond.
Neutralize, by adding small amounts of solid sodium hydrogen carbonate until it stops
fizzing. Perform the Benedicts test. A positive result indicates the presence of simple
non reducing sugar.

c. Iodine test for starch- to approximately 2cm of the test solution add 2 drops of
iodine/potassium iodide solution. A blue/black colour indicates the presence of starch.

d. Emulsion test for lipids- lipids do not dissolve in water, but do dissolve in ethanol.
This characteristic is used in the emulsion test. Grind up sample. Shake some test
sample with about 4cm2 of ethanol. Decant the liquid into a test tube of water leaving
any un-dissolved substances between. If there were lipids dissolved in the ethanol,
they will precipitate in the water, forming a cloudy white emulsion.

e. Biuret test for protein- to about 2cm3 of test solution add equal volume of biuret
solution, down the side of the test tube. A blue ring forms at the surface of the
solution, which disappears on shaking, and the solution turn lilac-purple, indicating
protein.

Shelf life of Bread- shelf life was the time period during which product retains all its
properties like texture, taste, flavour etc. shelf life of bread depends on the microbial activity
and also on the physical-chemical changes in bread. The longer the bread is held, the more
likely it is that microorganisms and fungi will grow and produce visible ad highly
objectionable appearance defects. It was measured by storing the bread at different controlled
and uncontrolled environmental conditions and note the spoilage time of the bread.

RESULTS-

Bread was prepared with in 4hrs by using this procedure.

204 Corresponding Author- Astha Verma| Copyright | IJSS| 2017

Table-1 Sample no.1 contains 200gm wheat, 100gm maize, 100gm rice. Sample no.2
contains 100gm wheat, 50gm maize, 50gm rice.

Sample no. Yield Weight (g) Height Total Moisture Colour

(cm) solids (%) content
(%)
1. 0.88 400 7.8 89.9 10.1 Light
brown
2. 0.88 200 6.0 89.8 10.2 Light
brown

Table-2 Sample no.1 contains 200gm wheat, 50gm maize, 50gm rice. Sample no.2 contains
100 gm wheat, 25gm maize, 25gm rice.

Sample no. Yield Weight (g) Height Total Moisture Colour

(cm) solids (%) content
(%)
1. 0.88 300 7.0 89.7 10.3 Light
brown
2. 0.88 150 5.8 89.6 10.4 Light
brown

205 Corresponding Author- Astha Verma| Copyright | IJSS| 2017

Table-3 Sample no.1 contains 100gm wheat, 100gm maize, 100gm rice. Sample no.2
contains 50 gm wheat, 50gm maize, 50gm rice.

Sample no. Yield Weight (g) Height Total Moisture Colour

(cm) solids (%) content
(%)
1. 0.88 300 6.3 89.5 10.5 Light
brown
2. 0.88 150 5.3 89.6 10.4 Light
brown

Table-4 Results of different biochemical test

S.NO. Biochemical test Results

1. Benedicts test for reducing sugars Positive
2. Benedicts test for non-reducing sugars Positive
3. Iodine test for starch Positive
4. Emulsion test for lipids Negative
5. Biuret test for protein Positive

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Table-5 Sample no.1 contains 200gm wheat, 100gm maize, 100gm rice. Sample no. 2
contains 100gm wheat, 50gm maize, 50gm rice.

Bread sample Temperature of storage in C No. of days of storage

1. 25 37 5
2. 25 37 5
Spoilage occur after 72 34
no. of hours

Table-6 Sample no.1 contains 200gm wheat, 50gm maize, 50gm rice. Sample no. 2 contains
100gm wheat, 25gm maize, 25gm rice.

Bread sample Temperature of storage in C No. of days of storage

1. 25 37 5
2. 25 37 5
Spoilage occur after 70 34
no. of hours

Table-7 Sample no.1 contains 100gm wheat, 100gm maize, 100gm rice. Sample no. 2
contains 50gm wheat, 50gm maize, 50gm rice.

Bread sample Temperature of storage in C No. of days of storage

1. 25 37 5
2. 25 37 5
Spoilage occur after 68 30
no. of hours

CONCLUSION

Temperature and relative humidity have an important effect on yeast growth and fermentative
capacity. Most strains of S. cerevisiae used for baking have an optimum temperature of about
36C to 39C, although seldom are such high temperatures used during the dough
fermentation. Rather, doughs are ordinarily held at temperature of about 25C to 28C (and
sponges slightly lower). Although higher temperature can accelerate fermentation and
gassing rates (defined as the amount of CO2 produced per unit time), elevated temperatures
also can enhance growth of microbial contaminants, including wild yeasts and mold. Also,
the temperature at which yeast activity decline is only a few degrees higher than its optima.
Relative humidity must also be controlled, usually at about 70% to 80%. Lower the air may
cause the dough to dry at surface, leading to formation of crust like material, as well as
inhabiting the fermentation.
207 Corresponding Author- Astha Verma| Copyright | IJSS| 2017
Wheat is a grass whose seeds belong to the cereal grain group, which provides the largest
serving on the food guide pyramid. Wheat contains gluten the basic structure for bread
making. Stored bread had a more plastic like crust (high deformable) compared to that of
fresh ones they had also a high crumb moisture content. The addition of other grain
ingredients can also unnecessarily expose sensitive consumers to dangerous gluten sensitive
reactions. On the other hand the addition of defatted rice bran (low cost, underutilised, and
nutritious food products) provides a safe and nutritional characteristic to whole-rice bread.
The reasons for decrease in specific volume of rice bread due to addition of rice bran are not
clear. The fact that the addition of even small amounts (10%) of rice flour improved the
texture, and also slowed the retro gradation of rice bread indicates the need for identifying an
appropriate rice cultivar or combinations of two or more cultivars for rice bread application.
Similarly, slight modification of rice proteins and fibre by the addition of enzymes during
proofing might improve the hydrophilic properties and hence, the specific volume of the
bread. Some retro gradation of rice bread during storage may not be that objectionable, as it
imparts desirable hypoglycaemic properties to bread provided it does meet the acceptable
standards in flavour and texture. The functional (quality) properties studied were physio-
chemical including protein, fat, sugars, crude fibre, vitamin, and amylose content as well as
rheological.

Bread has a moderately low water activity and pH and contains few microorganisms when it
leaves the oven, relative to other fermented foods, a highly perishable product. This is
because the shelf-life of bread depends not only on microbial activities, but also on physical-
chemical changes in the bread. Specifically, it is the phenomenon called staling that most
frequently causes consumers to reject bread products. For some fresh baked products stored
under ambient conditions, shelf life can be as short as just two or three days, due to the onset
of staling. However, the longer the bread is held, the more likely it is that microorganisms,
and fungi, in particular, will grow and produce visible and highly objectionable appearance
defects. Thus, maintaining bread in a fresh condition remains a major challenge for the bread
industry.

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209 Corresponding Author- Astha Verma| Copyright | IJSS| 2017