Product

All Products Bulletin

INTERNAL USE ONLY AEPB 225-000
February 1997

KOMATSU TERMINOLOGY GUIDE

KOMATSU AMERICA INTERNATIONAL COMPANY

 INTRODUCTION

Like many other industries, the construction equipment business has a language all its own. Even within the indus-
try, people refer to the same thing by a multitude of names. While nicknames will always have their place, it is to
your advantage to be familiar with some of the terms that are commonly used in the industry.

By knowing these terms you can avoid confusion and eliminate potentially embarrassing situations. Every manu-
facturer naturally tries to make his machine look best. Even though there are certain guidelines for them to follow,
things aren't always equal. This booklet covers components as well as explanations of how some basic specifica-
tions are determined. It's all laid out to help you make an informed, intelligent decision when it comes to your cus-
tomer's needs.

Komatsu and Komatsu distributors can be another valuable source of information. Their knowledge of both
machines and applications can help you utilize your resources to their maximum potential.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Engine Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Connecting Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Final Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Undercarriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
ENGINES
Diesel engines operate in cycles.
Each cycle (or stroke) consists of
four stages: intake, compression,
power and exhaust. The engines
themselves have two basic designs:
4 strokes per cycle and 2 strokes
per cycle.

4-STROKE
In the 4 stroke engine the piston
moves up and down 4 times in the
following order:

Intake: The piston begins the intake

stroke positioned near the top of
the cylinder. As the piston moves
down, the intake valve is opened
and air enters the cylinder under
atmospheric pressure (naturally
aspirated). More air can be forced
FOUR STROKE ENGINE
into the cylinder with a turbocharger.

Compression: The piston has bot-

tomed out and begins to rise, com-
pressing the air. The greater the
compression the hotter the air
becomes. Intake and exhaust
valves are closed.

Power: As the piston reaches the

top of its stroke, fuel is injected into
the cylinder. The compressed air
ignites the fuel. Since the valves
remain closed the expanding gases
produced by the burning fuel force
the piston down.

Exhaust: As the piston nears the

end of the power stroke, the
exhaust valve is opened and the TWO STROKE ENGINE
piston pushes out the gases on its
second upward stroke.

2-STROKE
In the 2 stroke engine the piston
moves up and down 2 times.
A blower is normally used to force
fresh air into the cylinder through a
row of ports that are located above
the piston when it is at the bottom
of its stroke. The fresh air forces out
the burned gasses through the
exhaust port which opens at the
same time as the intake ports. As
the piston rises, it closes both the
intake and exhaust ports, then
compresses the air. When the pis-
ton reaches the top of its stroke,
fuel is injected into the cylinder and
is ignited by the heated air. The
expanding gasses produced by the
burning fuel force the piston down
on the compression stroke.
Construction equipment normally
uses 4-stroke engines because of
their fuel efficiency, cleaner burn
and quiet running characteristics.
They also have more lugging ability
whereas 2-stroke engines are best
suited for small, high speed appli-
cations.

PAGE 2
DIRECT INJECTION VS. isn't used on construction equip-
PRECOMBUSTION ment because of its inefficiencies.
DISPLACEMENT
Also known as piston displace-
ment, this measures the volume
of air that is displaced as the pis-
ton moves from one end of its
stroke to another. Traditionally,
when comparing two engines, the
one with the larger displacement
could operate at a lower RPM.
This would reduce the wear and
tear and increase the service life
of the engine. In the last few
years, however, engine manufac-
turers have developed lighter and
stronger materials that can with-
stand increased speed and tem-
peratures without wearing as fast.
As a result, displacement, while
still important, is not as indicative
of engine life as it once was.
PISTONS
Aluminum pistons are used in
most modern diesel engines.
They are very strong, yet light-
weight. Since they are light-
weight, they require less power
to move, freeing more power to
do work. Cast iron pistons are
used in engines which are oper-
ated closer to their maximum
horsepower ratings. They are
most normally found on engines
with turbochargers where they
withstand the higher operating
temperatures better than alu-
minum pistons.

Most of the engines used on heavy
equipment are direct injection. This
means that the diesel fuel is inject-
ed into each cylinder individually by
a fuel injector or nozzle. This type
of system promotes efficient use of
the fuel. The engine also exhibits
good responsiveness. With a pre-
combustion type of system, the fuel
is directed into a small chamber
above the injector where it is ignit-
ed. There is not enough air to burn
it fully however. As the burning mix-
ture expands, it then moves into the
main chamber where it finishes
burning and provides power to
move the piston. This type of sys-
tem operates under lower pres-
sures than direct injection but it
MEAN EFFECTIVE
PRESSURE
More specifically, brake mean
effective pressure (BMEP) mea-
sures the pressure inside the
cylinder. As with displacement,
BMEP is not as important as it
once was. As long as the BMEP
doesn't exceed SAE recommen- Pistons normally have a concave
dations for that specific engine, head to swirl the fuel for a better
engine life shouldn't be affected. bum. The head is also anodized
Newer engines will normally have to resist scorching. There are
higher BMEP's than older usually three rings cut into the
piston to help form a seal
engines due to the stronger mate-
between the piston and the
rials that have been developed.
cylinder. They also help cool the
piston and control the flow of oil
BORE AND STROKE
between the piston and the
Bore is simply the diameter of the
cylinder wall. Niresist inserts are
cylinder while stroke is the dis-
used in aluminum pistons to
tance moved by the piston within
support the top ring and
the cylinder. Engines having a
decrease wear. Other features to
long stroke in relation to bore will
look for in aluminum pistons
exhibit good torque rise but will
include: 1) a shaker hole in the
have taster piston speeds.
piston head for improved cool-
Engines having equal bore and
ing, 2) relieved skirt around the
stroke (so-called square engines)
pin boss to reduce the mass of
will not be as responsive but may
the piston, and 3) a slightly
have longer component life
tapered top. This will expand
characteristics if all other things
during operation and will form a
are being equal.
tight seal.

PAGE 3
FUEL SYSTEM
There are three basic types of
fuel systems you may have
encountered: gas, diesel and
LP gas. We will look at diesel
fuel systems only. Of the two
types of diesel engines, most
construction equipment today
uses direct injection as
opposed to precombustion sys-
tems. This means that the fuel is
TURBOCHARGERS AND
AFTERCOOLERS
Engines are designed to operate
within given horsepower ranges.
Horsepower can be varied through
a number of means. One of these is
by turbocharging.
PAGE 4
sprayed directly into the com-
bustion chamber by injection
nozzles. Other key components
of this system include the tank,
fuel pump (if not gravity fed), fil-
ters to keep the diesel fuel clean
and injection pump.
The injection pump delivers the
fuel to the nozzles under high
pressure and at exactly the right
time for proper combustion to
Exhaust gasses drive a turbine with-
in the cylinder at speeds approach-
ing 100,000 rpm. This turbine forces
more air into the cylinder thus pro-
ducing a better and more complete
burn of the fuel. Since the turbo is
turned by the engine exhaust
gasses, there is no additional horse-
power drain on the engine.
Turbochargers provide several
advantages besides the increase in
power. They improve the efficiency
since the fuel is burned better. They
improve the torque rise and thus the
responsiveness of the engine.
Turbos also allow engines to be
used at high altitudes where the air
is thin. By forcing more air into the
cylinders, turbochargers significantly
increase the altitude ratings of
engines.
take place. Each cylinder has
its own injection nozzle which
atomizes the fuel into the com-
bustion chamber. Clean fuel is
essential because the injectors
can be subject to clogging.
When evaluating the fuel sys-
tems of diesel engines make
sure that the fuel filters are
spin-on/spin-off design to facili-
tate maintenance.
Aftercoolers also put more air into
the cylinder. By cooling the air
before it goes into the cylinder, the
air becomes denser and the
increased oxygen promotes better
combustion. Aftercoolers are nor-
mally used in conjunction with tur-
bochargers.
Since both turbochargers and after-
coolers produce a more rapid, even
burn within the cylinder, the engine
should be designed to withstand the
additional heat and pressures that
are generated. Turbocharging and
aftercooling an engine without tak-
ing these factors into consideration
can significantly reduce engine life.
WET VS. DRY CYLINDER
LINERS
Cylinder liners are inserted into the
cylinder bore to provide better wear
resistance. Wet liners have water
circulating around them to provide
cooling to the cylinder. As the liners
or sleeves wear out, they can be
replaced rather easily without hav-
ing to rebore the engine. Dry
sleeved engines have liners that
come into direct contact with the
cylinder wall. These are normally
used on engines that do not need
extra cooling. Like wet sleeves,
these can be replaced, although it
can be more difficult depending on the wall. Engines with no sleeves sider that the pistons must also be
how the sleeves are attached to must be rebored. This is more replaced with larger versions in
expensive especially when you con- order to fill the larger bore.

OTHER COMMENTS Four valves per head (two intake followers do not wear as quickly as
ABOUT ENGINES and two exhaust) facilitate greater flat tappets (they roll instead of rub
intake and exhaust efficiency against the camshaft). This keeps
Every manufacturer has their own meaning you get a more complete the valves operating more efficiently.
ideas about what it takes to make a burn and better fuel economy.
good engine. There are however, a
number of things that you should
be on the lookout for when consid-
ering engines. Engines designed
with individual cylinder heads are
easier to service and less likely to
lead to engine contamination when
servicing.

FOUR VALVES PER HEAD ROLLER CAM FOLLOWER

A high mounted camshaft means

the push rods are shorter and there
is less flex. This improves the valve
timing. Roller type cam
INDIVIDUAL CYLINDER HEADS

PAGE 5
ENGINE RATINGS
There are a number of different rat-
ings used for comparing the output
of an engine. Torque and horsepow-
er are two of the most commonly
used ratings. Torque measures the
turning ability of the output shaft.
Horsepower is calculated using the
following formula:
HP = Torque X rpm
5252
Let's look at some of the ways of
rating power and the important dif-
ferences that exist.
GROSS HORSEPOWER
Gross horsepower ratings as deter-
mined by SAE (Society of
Automotive Engineers) are often
used in specification sheets and
other literature. It is a measure of
theoretical power, that is, only the
attachments necessary to run the
engine have been connected.
Various other attachments that are
necessary for the engine to operate
such as fans, water pumps, etc. all
use some of the horsepower.
Therefore gross horsepower is not
a measure of useable horsepower.
NET FLYWHEEL
HORSEPOWER
Net flywheel horsepower is the use-
able power rating for an engine.
This figure is arrived at after all
horsepower-draining devices have
been added to the engine. SAE has
set standards for manufacturers to
comply with when determining net
flywheel horsepower. This is proba-
bly the best figure to use when
comparing two engines.
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Brake horsepower is a measure-
ment closely related to gross
horsepower. Generally speaking,
brake horsepower is the rating used
on many European manufacturers'
machines. It is slightly different from
PAGE 6
gross horsepower in that it takes
into account some additional horse-
power draining devices but not to
the extent of the net horsepower
calculations. Comparing brake
horsepower to net or gross flywheel
horsepower is not a valid compari-
son.
MAXIMUM TORQUE
Engines are governed to operate in
their most efficient range for a par-
ticular application. Within this RPM
range the engine will have a certain
speed at which it will be able to
produce its maximum torque or
twisting effect.
TORQUE RISE
This is the measure of responsive-
ness for an engine. It is normally
given in percentages and measures
the increase in the torque rating
when the engine is at the rated rpm
(high idle speed) and when it is at
the speed at which it is producing
its maximum torque. As a general
rule of thumb, the higher the torque
rise the more responsive the
engine. High torque rise engines
are most useful in loading and doz-
ing applications where the engine
cycles through a greater RPM
range.
Referring to the chart at the left,
torque rise can be calculated using
the following:
Torque rise = A - B
B
CONNECTING UNITS DAMPER TORQUE CONVERTERS
Now that there is engine output in
the form of horsepower, it is neces-
sary to send it through the drive
train and out to the wheels or
tracks. There is a connecting unit
between the engine and transmis-
sion allowing the flow of power to
efficiently take place. This connect-
ing unit can take three forms:
clutches, dampers or torque con-
verters. Clutches are used in con-
junction with mechanical transmis-
sions while the damper and torque
converter are used with hydraulic
assist transmissions. Let's take a
brief look at each of these connect-
ing units.
A damper is mounted on the Torque converters are the connect-
engine flywheel and absorbs the ing unit used on most types of con-
shocks when gears are shifted. struction equipment. Rather than a
Rather than totally disengaging the mechanical coupling, torque con-
power flow as clutches do, the verters form a fluid coupling. Torque
damper allows on-the-go shifting. converters have two major advan-
Springs and rubber bushings built tages over other connecting units:
into the damper absorb torsional they absorb shocks well and they
shocks and keeps them from being multiply torque without additional
transferred to the transmission. gear sets. For example, if a torque
When used on Komatsu machines converter has a 2.5 to 1 ratio, then
such as motor graders and small at torque converter stall the con-
crawlers the damper is considered verter will multiply the engine
part of the Hydroshift transmission torque two and a half times.
package. This gives the positive (Torque converter stall is that point
drive and economy of direct drive at which the converter has been
units with the convenience of a loaded to such a point that it stalls
powershift transmission. and can't produce any further
CLUTCHES torque.)
Clutches are used with direct drive
transmissions such as those found
on agricultural tractors or manual
transmission automobiles. They
connect or disconnect the engine
from the transmission. Pressing the
clutch pedal disengages the fly-
wheel from the transmission input
shaft. After changing gears, releas-
ing the pedal reengages the power
flow. As direct drive applications on
construction equipment are rare,
we will not go into a further discus-
sion of the various types of clutches.

PAGE 7
Torque converters have three major
components: the impeller (pump),
stator and turbine. There are no
mechanical connections between
these three. The oil flows through a
series of passages connecting
these items. By changing the direc-
tion of the flow and sending it
through different size passages, the
speed and force of the oil changes.
This is the key to the torque multi-
plication that takes place.
Since torque converters use fluid to
drive the machines, there is some
power lost in the conversion.
Generally speaking, torque convert-
ers transmit power at about 85%
efficiency. Some converters have
lockup capabilities which lock the
elements of the converter together
and produce direct drive. This is
useful for high speed, low torque
applications such as dump trucks.
TWIN TURBINE CONVERTER
Twin turbine converters have two
turbines, one working inside the
other. Each turbine drives a differ-
ent gear set. When the load placed
on the machine is high, only the
turbine driving the low gear set is
PAGE 8
turning. This provides more torque TORQUE DIVIDER
for power. As the load is reduced
The torque divider is an effort to
and the ground speed gets faster,
combine the best points of direct
the second turbine begins to turn.
drive transmissions with the torque
This decreases torque but increas-
multiplication of torque converters.
es ground speed. A major problem
The divider splits the power by
inherent with twin turbines is the
sending some of it to the torque
overrunning clutch that is used to
converter while the rest is sent to a
engage the system. The design will
gear set. The torque dividers main
not allow engine braking on down-
advantage lies in higher engine
hill travel because the unit will
speed, lower torque applications
always shift up to the outer turbine,
where it is fuel efficient. Its disad-
reducing torque and increasing
vantages are the greater mainte-
speed. This overrunning clutch can
nance costs associated with the
also contribute to increased mainte-
additional moving parts.
nance and downtime.
TRANSMISSIONS Powershift transmissions are either PLANETARY
the countershaft design or the plan-
There are three types of transmis- A planetary transmission utilizes a
etary design. Let's look at each one
sion mechanical transmissions series of planetary gear sets com-
in more detail.
such as sliding gear systems, posed of a sun gear located in the
hydraulic assist transmissions center and planet gears which walk
COUNTERSHAFT
which include both planetary and around the sun gear. Encircling
countershaft systems, and hydro- both of these gears is the ring gear.
static transmissions.
Planetaries are extremely versatile.
MECHANICAL To get power transfer, one gear or
TRANSMISSIONS gear set is used for input, another
Mechanical transmissions are so is held stationary and the third
named because they must be shift- becomes the output member. For
ed by either hand or foot. Clutches instance, suppose the sun gear is
are used to disengage the engine receiving power from the engine. A
from the transmission while the series of clutch packs hold the
gears are being moved. There are planet gears in place. This in turn
several types of mechanical trans- causes the ring gear to walk
missions including the sliding mesh around the planet gears. The ring
or sliding gear, the collar shift and gear is attached to the output and,
the synchromesh. Their primary as it moves, provides the driving
applications are on farm and indus- output. Below is an example of the
Countershaft transmissions have a
trial machinery. These are also Komatsu TORQFLOW transmission
series of shafts with clutch packs
known as direct drive systems. using a planetary transmission.
(normally two) attached to each
There are five gear sets, one for
shaft. By applying different clutches
each speed and one each for the
through the speed and directional
forward and reverse gears.
levers, power flows from shaft to
shaft differently.
The main advantages of planetary
transmissions are in the compact
Countershafts have several advan-
design and the fact that they
tages over planetaries. They pro-
spread the driving load over a
vide excellent reliability at a reason-
greater gear tooth surface area.
able cost. They are simple in design
Their disadvantages are their com-
and are easy to service. It is also a
plexity and the length of time it
very durable design but since coun-
takes to service them.
tershafts are not as compact as
planetary transmissions it is very
hard to design one for use on large
equipment.

HYDRAULIC ASSIST
TRANSMISSIONS
Hydraulic assist transmissions use
hydraulic clutches to engage differ-
ent gears. They can be shifted with-
out interrupting the flow of power.
This leads to their generic name of
powershift transmissions.

PAGE 9
HYDROSTATIC

Hydrostatic transmissions are differ-

ent than other types of transmis-
sions in that they use fluid rather
than mechanical gears for the dri-
ving force. The engine drives a vari-
able displacement pump that sends
oil either through a control valve or
directly to a hydraulic motor. This
then converts the hydraulic power
to mechanical power by activating a
driving member such as a sprocket
or a wheel.

Hydrostatic transmissions offer a

number of attractive features includ-
ing infinitely variable speed control
and high horsepower utilization.
Hydrostatics are most often used
on track drive machines such as
dozers or excavators although there
are some manufacturers using the
design on wheel loaders. When
used on track machines the hydro-
static transmission increases
maneuverability by allowing power
turns and counterrotation.
The main disadvantage lies in the
maintenance costs incurred in
keeping the system oil clean and in
the repair costs should the system
become contaminated. Heat can be
another problem with some hydro-
static designs.

DIFFERENTIALS a straight line up to this point, it is
necessary for it to be transferred
"around the corner. to the wheel or
sprocket. Differentials were devel-
oped for this reason. Along the way
they also further reduce the engine
speed and create more torque.
Differentials are given a reduction
ratio to tell you just how much they
increase torque. A ratio of 3:1 will
increase torque three times.
wheel. This basic system is the
same as the one used on your
automobile. A drawback of conven-
tional differentials is that in poor
conditions, when one wheel spins
on ice or mud, all torque goes to
the spinning wheel. However, con-
ventional differentials work well on
good surface conditions.

Differentials also allow one tire to

Differentials have a number of func-
tions. Since all of the engine power
has come through the drive train in
overrun the other when turning cor-
ners or going around curves.
During this condition, the axle shaft
and side gear of the outer tire turn
faster than the side gear on the
opposite side. When this
occurs the differential pinions are
forced to rotate and transfer the
majority of power to the outside

PAGE 10

TORQUE
PROPORTIONING
DIFFERENTIALS
From a structural standpoint, torque
proportioning differentials are
almost the same as conventional.
The main difference is the odd
number of gear teeth that are
shaped in such a way that they
restrict differentiation until the load
difference on both the right and left
sides exceeds 38%. This means
that even in soft terrain, machines
with torque proportioning differen-
tials will experience better traction
without the tire scuffing associated
with other types of differentials.
NOSPIN
The NoSpin differential does not
use a pinion gear or side gears.
Instead it uses clutch packs which
are engaged on the drive axle. In a
turn, the outside tire overruns the
inside producing a ratcheting effect
which unlocks the clutch. All torque
is transmitted to the inside tire and
the outside is allowed to freewheel.
While the NoSpin provides excel-
lent traction it does diminish turning
performance. It is also limited to
use on smaller machines or very
specialized applications.
LIMITED SLIP
The limited slip differential is similar
to the conventional except that
there is a clutch plate installed
between the differential case and
the side gear. These plates are
pressed against the differential
case. When slippage starts to
occur, the side thrust causes the
side gear to push the disc against
the differential case to rotate with it.
This prevents the tire from slipping.
Its disadvantage is the complexity
of its construction and the extra
maintenance required.
DIFFERENTIAL LOCK
Some machines are equipped with
differential lock. The operator uses
a switch to hydraulically lock the dif-
ferential together so no differentia-
tion occurs. This is extremely good
for traction but due to the increased
tire scuffing that results its applica-
tions are limited. The operator must
also remember to disengage the
clutch or severe tire scuffing will
occur during turning.
PAGE 11
FINAL DRIVES
There are two basic types of final
drives: spur gear and pinion, and
planetary. Spur gear and pinion can
also be known as single or double
reduction. Both planetary and spur
and pinion decrease the speed of
the drive train and increase the
torque to the wheel or track. On
smaller machines a small pinion
gear uses the engine
BRAKES
Brakes are a very important part of
construction equipment for one
obvious reason: without them it
would be extremely difficult to stop.
There are a number of different
types of brakes with their use
depending on the particular appli-
cation for which they are intended.
DISC BRAKES
Disc brakes use a number of lined
and unlined discs. The lined discs
are splined to the brake hub and
rotate with it as it turns. They are
usually lined with some type of cel-
lulose material. The unlined discs
are splined to the housing. When
the brake is applied the discs are
compressed, friction occurs and
the machine is slowed. Disc brakes
are either dry or wet. The wet
discs are run in oil to prevent heat
PAGE 12
power to turn a larger spur gear.
This reduces the engine speed and
increases torque. On higher horse-
power machines it may be neces-
sary to further reduce the engine
output by going through another
pinion and spur reduction.
Planetary final drives are most
commonly found on wheel loaders.
They are a more compact design
and can be located next to the dif-
buildup and exhibit longer service
life than dry disc brakes. Smaller
machines use wet, single disc
brakes. Larger machines use wet,
multiple disc brakes which provide
more stopping power. The more
discs that are used, the greater the
stopping power. Most disc brakes
are self adjusting.
ferential (inboard mounted) or may
even be located at the outer end of
the axle (known as outboard
mounted finals). The sun gear is
mounted on the drive shaft and
turns as it turns. As the sun gear
moves it forces the planet gears to
walk around the inside of the ring
gear. This delivers the power to the
drive wheels at a slower speed but
with increased torque.
CALIPER DISC
Caliper disc brakes use a single
disc with pads on either side. They
are not run in oil, so they are
referred to as a dry brake system.
When the brake is actuated, the
pads contract against the disc and
produce friction for stopping. A sim-
ple caliper disc brake can be found
on the hand actuated brakes of
bicycles. Rubber pads are held in
place by a caliper on either side of
the tire rim. When the brakes are
applied the pads rub against the
rim and cause the cycle to stop. On
construction equipment the pads
press against a disc connected to
the axle. The friction causes the
machine to stop. Caliper discs are
also self adjusting.
CONTRACTING BAND the lining to the drum is constant
and the pressure is evenly applied.
Like disc brakes, contracting band
brakes can either be wet (run and
cooled in oil) or dry.
EXPANDING SHOE
Internal expanding shoe brakes are
similar in operation except that the
pressure is applied against the
inner surface of the drum rather
than the outer. Two lined shoes are
held in place by springs and move
outward against the drum. Shoe
brakes are very easy to replace but
require periodic adjustment.

Contracting band brakes feature a

brake drum surrounded by the
brake lining. As the brakes are
applied, the lining contracts and
stops the machine. The key to con-
tracting brakes is that they must be
adjusted so that the distance from

TIRES Aspect ratio is another term used in TREAD:

describing tires. This is simply the
Tires can play an important role in tire height divided by the width. The tread of the tire is made of thick,
making your machine more efficient These are normally not specified strong rubber to protect the inner
in its operation. Poorly matched unless the tire is considered a low structure as well as to protect the tire
tires can cost literally thousands of aspect tire. from abrasion and external damage.
dollars over their life. Knowing The part that meets the ground is
some facts about tires and the ter- A tire is usually composed of four called the crown, on which various
minology associated with them can major parts; namely the tread, patterned grooves are used to
help you make more informed deci- breaker, carcass, and bead. accommodate specific road surfaces.
sions.
Tire size is generally expressed in
inch dimensions for the width and
rim diameter (inner dia. of tire),
together with ply rating (PR) which
indicates carcass strength. Ply rat-
ings today do not indicate the num-
ber of cord cloths used but, rather
they express tire strength. Recently,
tires have undergone changes in
the cord's material, going from cot-
ton to rayon and the wires from
nylon to steel. Although ply number
has been lowered, tire strength has
grown. Ply rating, therefore, indi-
cates tire strength, independent of
ply number.

PAGE 13
BREAKER:
The breaker is a layer of cord
cloths (usually 2 to 4) that lie
between the tread and carcass.
They not only cushion the tire from
external shocks, but prevent the
tread damage from extending to the
carcass.
CARCASS:
The carcass or skeleton plays an
important role in tire construction. It
is composed of cord cloth layers
superimposed in slanted fashion
and alternated with vertical threads.
As a result, the tire is able to han-
dle shocks and stress and maintain
air pressure within the tire. Cord
thread used for the carcass is gen-
erally made of nylon. A special rub-
ber is inserted between cloth layers
to protect the tire from excessive
heat due to abrasive wear.
PAGE 14
BEAD:
Located where the tire fits the rim,
the bead is another fundamental
tire part. Strong steel wires covered
with rubber ensures the tire does
not come apart from the rim when
jolted by road surface shocks and
the driving force of the rim.
SIDEWALL:
Adjacent to the tread, on the side of
the tire, is the sidewall. The rubber
is thin and soft to allow flexibility
during vehicle travel.
TUBELESS TIRES
The tubeless tire is not a tire which
does not contain a tube, but a tire
in which both tube and tire are inte-
grated. In a tubeless tire an inner
liner equivalent to a tube in a regu-
lar tire is pasted on the inside of
the tire to make one solid tire.
Tubeless tires have several advan-
tages: 1 ) punctures are sealed so
there is no immediate air leakage,
2) air inside the tires is kept cooler,
so tire life may be longer, 3) and
repair is easy.
RADIAL TIRES
Radial tires differ somewhat in con-
struction from bias ply tires. Radial
tires have a single layer of steel
cables laid crosswise across the
tire, replacing the layers of nylon
used on bias ply tires. On top of
this and underneath the tread are
steel belts.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Tires have a number of different
patterns. In order to minimize con-
fusion The Tire and Rim
Association Inc. (TRA) classifies
each tire according to its tread and
other performance characteristics.
These are listed in the chart on the
following page.
 OFF-ROAD (OR) TIRE CLASSIFICATION

EXPLANATION
TRA Tread Type
Cord Type of Pattern Use

C1 SMOOTH Without pattern For tire rollers

C2 GROOVED With pattern For tire rollers
E1 RIB Rib For front wheels of dump trucks
E2 TRACTION Traction For scrapers; used on sandy ground and soft soil
where high traction is necessary.
E3 ROCK Rock For dump trucks and scrapers; used where
resistance against external damage and
abrasion is important.
E4 ROCK DEEP TREAD Deep ground rock For dump trucks and scrapers; used where resis-
tance against external damage and
abrasion is important.
E7 FLOTATION Block For carry-all scrapers; stronger
than E3; used where only flotation
is needed.
G1 RIB Rib For front wheels of graders.
G2 TRACTION Traction For rear wheels of graders; used
where high traction is necessary.
G3 ROCK Rock For rear wheels of graders; used where
resistance against external damage and
abrasion rather than traction is necessary.
G4 ROCK DEEP TREAD Rock For rear wheels of graders; used where more
resistance to external damage and abrasion
is required to be stronger than those of G3.
Grooves are deeper than on G3.
L2 TRACTION Traction For loaders and dozers; used on sandy
ground where traction is necessary.
L3 ROCK Rock For loaders and dozers; used on mountain sand
and on rocks where resistance against
external damage and abrasion is necessary.
L4 ROCK DEEP TREAD Deep grooved rock For loaders and dozers; used where more
resistance to external damage and abrasion
than L3 can provide is required.
L5 ROCK EXTRA DEEP Extra deep grooved For loaders and dozers; used where more
TREAD rock resistance to external damage and abrasion
than L4 can provide is required
L-3S SMOOTH Without pattern For loaders and dozers; used in underground
mines where resistance to external damage and
abrasion is necessary.
L-4S SMOOTH DEEP Deep grooved rock For loaders and dozers; used where more resis-
TREAD tance against external damage and abrasion than
L-3S can provide is required.
L-5S SMOOTH EXTRA- Extra deep grooved For loaders; used where more resistance to exter-
DEEP TREAD rock nal damage and abrasion than L-4S can provide is
required.

PAGE 15
UNDERCARRIAGE
On track-type machines the under-
carriage is the single most expen-
sive maintenance item on the
machine. Past history has shown
that this amounts to approximately
fifty percent of the total costs attrib-
uted to maintenance. Proper under-
carriage design and service can
significantly affect the long term
costs associated with crawlers.
There are two groups into which
the undercarriage can be divided:
the track assembly and the track
frame assembly. The track assem-
bly consists of the track shoes and
related components such as the
pad, bushing, link, pin and track
seals. The frame assembly has
more components: the frame, track
rollers, carrier rollers, idler, sprock-
et, recoil spring, track guides, vari-
ous track guards and a hydraulic
track adjuster are the major parts.
Let's look first at the track frame
assembly.
The track frame assembly rides on
the track rollers. These are flanged in
order to keep the track in line. Most
manufacturers alternate between sin-
gle and double flanged rollers. The
tracks are connected to the main-
frame by an equalizer bar. On small
crawlers this is pinned so that the
track remains rigid. This means that
the track does not oscillate
PAGE 16
which would allow it to remain in
contact with the ground when it
travels over hills or other obstacles.
On larger crawlers the
equalizer bar allows the individual
tracks to oscillate. This has several
advantages. It improves the ride for
the operator, increases the dozing
accuracy and improves traction.
The rear of the frame is connected
to the mainframe by a pivot shaft.
On smaller crawlers the pivot shaft
runs through the center of the final
drive. On larger machines the pivot
shaft is independent of the final
drive. This allows it to absorb shock
loads that could otherwise affect
the life of the final.
Carrier rollers support the track on
the topside. These are necessary to
help maintain the proper track ten-
sion which can greatly impact
undercarriage wear. The front idler
is just a big carrier roller that can
also absorb some impact loads. It is
connected to a recoil spring which
acts as a shock absorber. All of the
rollers on crawlers should be
sealed and should require no peri-
odic maintenance.
Finally, on the rear of the track
assembly is the sprocket. Two
designs are available, either a one
piece design or a segmented
sprocket. A segmented sprocket
can be replaced without breaking
the track, a big savings in both time
and money.
The track is composed of shoes or
pads bolted to track links. The links
are fastened together by bushings.
Pins turn inside the bushings and
provide the hinging action neces-
sary for travel. Since this is metal to
metal contact there is a great deal
of wear in this area. Sealed and
lubricated track can reduce this
wear and prolong the life of the
track.
SHOES
Crawler undercarriages are subject-
ed to heavy loads and stresses. To
extend the life it is necessary to
use the appropriate shoe.
Depending on specific operating
conditions as well as the nature of
the soil, there is a shoe designed
for those exact conditions. Most
dozers are equipped with a type of
grouser shoe. Single grousers bite
deeply into the ground and are
used when traction is important.
Triple grousers are used on harder
ground when maneuverability is
important. Most often they are used
on crawler loaders and hydraulic
excavators. Double grousers are a
compromise between single and
triple, providing both traction and
maneuverability.
Swamp shoes are used on
machines operating in extremely
soft underfoot conditions. The
shoes are wider than regular shoes
and have a triangular shape to
STEERING
Like your automobile, some con-
struction equipment can be steered
by fuming the wheels. When the
steering wheel is turned, the front
wheels turn. This is known as
Ackerman steering. The steering
wheel can be connected to the
front wheels by a mechanical link-
age or it can be hydraulically assist-
ed as well as full hydraulic.
Ackerman steering is used on
some rigid frame dump trucks and
some motor graders.
ARTICULATED
The majority of equipment is articu-
lated, that is, the front wheels do
not turn but rather the whole front
frame turns.
When the steering wheel is turned,
increase the ground contact area
and thus increase flotation.
Komatsu's circular arc shoe is a
modified triangular shoe which fur-
ther increases the contact area.
This shoe is also designed in such
a way that it is self cleaning and
sheds mud easily.
There are other types of specialty
shoes such as rubber pads for
operation on pavements, snow
shoes, rock shoes and extreme ser-
vice shoes. The latter offer longer
service and may be used in tough
applications.
hydraulic cylinders are actuated,
causing the front frame or section
to turn in relation to the rear frame.
This type of steering is used on
wheel loaders, articulated dump
trucks and scrapers. It is also used
in conjunction with the Ackerman
steering used on motor graders.
Articulated steering provides a
SHOE SIZES
Crawlers normally come with sever-
al different shoe options. The cor-
rect shoe size depends on the type
of application and the underfoot
conditions. As a general rule of
thumb, the shoe should be as nar-
row as possible while still giving the
proper flotation and traction. The
softer the soil condition, the wider
the shoe should be.
TRACK GUARDING
Depending on the application it can
become necessary to protect the
undercarriage. Guarding is avail-
able which protects the track rollers
and the final drives as well as other
undercarriage components. Since
the undercarriage will be responsi-
ble for a large portion of the
machine's maintenance and repair
costs, care should be taken to pro-
vide the best care possible for the
track.
small turning radius in relation to
Ackerman while also allowing a
longer wheelbase. This promotes
better stability and safety. Also, on
wheel loaders with articulation, the
rear wheels should follow the same
track as the front wheels. This is
known as center-point articulation. It
lessons the
PAGE 17
stresses placed on the loader and
reduces tire scuffing. Steering
should be responsive at all engine
speeds. This is accomplished
through the use of demand valves
and other hydraulic innovations.
See valving under hydraulic for
more details.
TRACK TYPE STEERING
Crawler dozers obviously cannot
use the same type of steering as
rubber tired machines. Instead,
HYDRAULICS
While the engine and the rest of the
power train move the machine, its
working ability often depends on its
hydraulic system. In its simplest
form a hydraulic system requires
two components; a pump to move
oil and a cylinder to do work. Other
features merely add to the efficien-
cy and reliability of the hydraulic
system.
PUMPS
As used in construction equipment,
pumps provide oil flow to the rest of
the hydraulic system. They are
rated by displacement. A pump
rated at 75 rpm displaces seventy-
five gallons per minute. This is also
known as the flow rate. There are
several types of pumps which we
will now look at.
PAGE 18
crawlers use a system composed
of steering clutches and brakes. A
lever controls each track and
pulling it partially back disengages
the clutch and stops the power flow
to that track. This causes the
machine to turn. Pulling the lever
even farther back applies the brake
and keeps the track from moving.
This causes the machine to turn
even faster in what is known as a
pivot turn.
GEAR PUMPS
Gear pumps are perhaps the sim-
plest pump used on construction
equipment. Gear teeth trap oil from
a hydraulic reservoir and push it
through the system. The teeth form
a seal against the wall so that the
oil doesn't go back into the tank.
Gear pumps are durable and are
not as sensitive to dirt and foreign
matter as are other pumps.
However, they are not as efficient
as piston pumps. This becomes
more of a problem at higher pres-
sures. Gear pumps are fixed dis-
placement pumps meaning that for
every pump rpm a rated volume of
oil is pushed through the system.
HYDROSTATIC
Hydraulic excavators and some
crawler loaders and dozers utilize
hydrostatic steering. As explained
in the transmission section, a
hydrostatic machine uses pumps
and motors to provide power to the
tracks. This allows the operator to
maintain power while turning and
also allows counterrotation.
VANE PUMPS
Vane pumps use a rotor which has
vanes that slide freely in slots
attached to it. As the rotor turns the
vanes are forced outward by the
centrifugal force. This forms the
seal and is self-compensating for
wear. Like gear pumps, vane
pumps cannot operate efficiently at
high pressures. Vane pumps used
on equipment are fixed displace-
ment.
PISTON PUMPS
There are two types of piston
pumps: radial piston and axial pis-
ton. By far and away the axial pump
is the primary piston pump used on
equipment. Both axial and radial
pumps are variable displacement,
that is, the rate at which they move
oil can vary from nearly zero gal-
lons per minute up to its rated
capacity. Let's look at how an axial
piston pump works.
Each pump has several pistons
which are located in a rotating
housing. The heads of the pistons
are in contact with a tilted plate
called a swashplate. By changing
the tilting angle of the swashplate,
the stroke of the pistons can be
changed. As the oil enters the inlet
port, it fills the empty cavity in front

of the piston. As the housing
rotates, the cylinder riding on the
swashplate begins to push the oil
through the outlet port.
Variable piston pumps are the most
efficient type of pump. Since their
displacement can change, only the
amount of oil needed for the partic-
ular function can be moved through
the system. Piston pumps are also
able to operate under much higher
pressures than other types of
pumps so the forces (such as
breakout force or bucket digging
forces) can be increased. One cau-
tion, however; piston pumps are
sensitive to contamination in the
hydraulic system and are more
expensive than other pumps.
Therefore, piston pumps require
excellent system filtration and care
not to contaminate the system
when servicing.
CYLINDERS
Cylinders are the other basic com-
ponent of the hydraulic system. The
cylinder is the component which
performs the work the system was
designed to do. Single-acting cylin-
ders will only exert force in one
direction while double- acting cylin-
ders can move loads in both direc-
tions. Hydraulic cylinders use the
same measurements as engine
cylinders; bore and stroke.
The force a cylinder exerts is
dependent on two things - bore and
pressure. If the same cylinder is
placed in two separate hydraulic
systems, one operating under low
pressure and another under higher
pressure, the cylinder under high
pressure will exert more force. But
it's also possible to increase the
force by increasing the cylinder
bore. If two cylinders are operating
under the same pressure, the one
having the largest bore will exert
more force (all other things equal).
There are several other things to
remember about cylinders. Smaller
cylinders generally produce quicker
responses than larger ones simply
because it takes less oil to fill the
cylinder.
With the advent of new technolo-
gies and better quality components,
it is now possible to generate large
hydraulic forces using smaller com-
ponents. This provides the best of
both worlds, speed and force.
VALVES
Hydraulic valves are used either to
control pressure (such as relief
valves), direct flow (control valves)
or control flow volume.
Komatsu makes use of several
types of valves to improve the effi-
ciency of the hydraulic system. For
instance a demand valve is used in
conjunction with the steering sys-
tem on wheel loaders. This sends
the flow to the steering circuit first
and then to the rest of the system.
This ensures that the steering
response remains constant even
when the engine is at low speed
and the pump is producing a lower
flow. A swing priority valve is used
on excavators to ensure that the
excavator has sufficient swing
speed even when other attach-
ments are in use.
PILOT OPERATED
CONTROLS
On smaller machines the control
lever ties directly into the attach-
ment it is intended to move. This is
called a mechanical linkage.
PAGE 19
On larger machines the force that is
necessary to move the attachment
or machine is too large and
requires too much effort on the part
of the operator. In this case pilot
operated controls are used.
Hydraulics assist the operator by
relieving some of the effort needed
to actuate the controls. This is simi-
lar in theory to the power brakes or
power steering on automobiles.
Pilot operated controls use a sepa-
rate low pressure hydraulic system
to actuate the controls.
PROPORTIONAL
PRESSURE CONTROLS
In some cases where fine control is
extremely important, proportional
CONCLUSION
The information provided in this
book is not intended to provide in-
depth knowledge of a particular
subject. It should, however,
PAGE 20
pressure controls are used. While
pilot operated controls relieve the
effort for the operator, they are not
proportional. Moving the control
lever one inch will cause the attach-
ment to move a certain distance
while moving it one inch further
could greatly increase the distance
or speed at which it moves.
With a Proportional Pressure
Control (PPC) system, every inch
moved causes a direct and propor-
tional movement in the attachment.
This system is found most often on
hydraulic excavators where fine
control for finishing and pipe han-
dling are important. It is also finding
its way onto other types of equip-
ment such as wheel loaders.
provide a useful, quick reference
covering a broad range of subjects.
Take the time to become familiar
with your products and
BUCKET CONTROLS
A boom kickout will stop the boom
raise function at a predetermined
height set by the operator. This can
significantly reduce fatigue espe-
cially if the operator is continually
loading into trucks or hoppers of
the same height.
A bucket leveler (also known as
return-to-dig) automatically returns
the bucket to a pre-set digging
angle. This can shorten cycle times
and reduce operator effort.
how they work. Then, when people
look to you for recommendations,
you can feel confident when refer-
ring them to Komatsu.
GLOSSARY
Arm crowd force - On an excavator, the arm crowd force is the force generated by the arm cylinder and is mea-
sured at the bucket teeth as the cylinder moves the arm about the hinge point. The arm should be positioned so as
to gain the maximum output from the arm and bucket.

Articulation angle - The turning angle of an articulated vehicle. The larger the angle, the smaller the fuming radius.

Breakout force - as defined for loaders is the maximum sustained force exerted four inches behind the tip of the
bucket cutting edge and achieved through the ability to lift and/or rollback about the specified point. Breakout must
be properly balanced with machine weight and rimpull. Too much breakout will result in the rear of the machine being
lifted off the ground. Too little breakout slows cycle times and reduces production.

Bucket capacity - Struck capacity is that volume contained on a bucket after a load is leveled by drawing a straight
edge across the edge and sides of the bucket. Heaped capacity is struck capacity plus that additional material that
would heap on the struck load at a 2:1 angle of repose with the struck line parallel to the ground.

Bucket force - On an excavator, the bucket force is the force generated by the bucket cylinder when the bucket and
linkage are positioned to develop the maximum force. Measurement is calculated at the bucket teeth in relation to
the ability of the cylinder to rotate the bucket about the bucket pin.

Drawbar pull - This is a measurement of power that can be applied to pushing or pulling. It is limited by traction.
Improving the traction by adding more weight to the machine can improve drawbar pull.

Gauge - The distance between the centerline of the track.

Lift capacity - The maximum weight an excavator or loader can lift. According to SAE regulations, this figure cannot
exceed 75% of minimum tipping loads of 87% of the rated hydraulic capacity for that machine. Lift charts must indi-
cate if the lifting capacity is limited by the hydraulics.

Operating load - Bucket capacity as governed by SAE. For wheel loaders operating capacity should not exceed
50% of the full turn static tipping load. On track loaders it should not exceed 35% of the tipping load.

Payload - The amount of material that the loader or haul unit is able to move.

Static tipping load - This is the minimum amount of weight in the bucket which will cause a wheel loader to raise
the rear wheels off the ground. On crawler loaders the rollers must clear the track. Tipping loads on wheel loaders
are measured with the machine in the straight ahead position and with it fully articulated (full turn tipping load).

Tip radius - Generally used in conjunction with excavator buckets, this is the distance from the uppermost bucket
hinge pin to the edge of the bucket teeth. Buckets with shorter tip radii are better suited for tougher digging than
those with larger radii.

Tread - The distance between the centerline of the tires on an axle.

Wheelbase - The distance from the center of the front axle to the center of the rear axle.

Working weight - The working weight is calculated by adding the bucket weight and the payload.

PAGE 21
APPENDIX ONE
Maximum digging depth - The maximum digging depth is the distance from the ground level to the bucket tooth
tips when the bucket teeth are at maximum bottom. However, in actual operations the machine completes finishing
with its bucket bottom, therefore maximum digging depth should be considered 10% less than its calculated value.

Maximum reach - Horizontal distance from the center of the upper works to the bucket tooth tips.

Maximum reach at ground level - Horizontal distance for the center of the upper structure to bucket tooth tips
when the tooth tips are placed on the ground.

Maximum digging height - Vertical distance from ground to bucket tooth tips when the tooth tips are fully raised.

Maximum dumping height - Vertical distance from ground to bucket tooth tips when the bucket is dumped at its
maximum digging height.

Maximum vertical wall depth - Vertical distance from ground to bucket tooth tips when the ditch wall is at a 90
degree angle to the ground.

Maximum digging depth of cut for 2440 mm (8') level bottom - Maximum depth to allow 8' horizontal cutting.

PAGE 22
APPENDIX TWO
Bucket rollback - This is the angle that the bucket will rotate backwards around the hinge pin, usually at carry posi-
tion. More rollback (also called rackback) means less spillage.

Digging depth - Maximum depth below ground line which the bucket will penetrate.

Dumping clearance - Vertical distance from the ground line to the tip of the bucket's teeth when the boom is fully
raised and the bucket is at a 45 degree dumping angle.

Dumping reach - Horizontal distance from the foremost part of a loader to the tip of the bucket teeth when it is at a
45 degree dumping angle. The boom must be fully raised.

Hinge pin height - Vertical distance from the ground to the bucket pin when the boom is fully raised.

Hydraulic cycle times

a. Raise time - Time in seconds required to raise the bucket from level position on the ground.

b. Lower time - Time in seconds required to lower the empty bucket from full height to a level
position on the ground.

c. Dump time - Time in seconds required to move the bucket from the load carrying position at
maxi mum height to the full dump position while dumping an SAE operating load.

PAGE 23
APPENDIX THREE
Angle dozer - The blade can be mechanically angled in relation to the mainframe. This is useful for grading,
backfilling, etc.

Cushion dozer - Smaller capacity blade that is normally used for push-loading scrapers.

Power angle dozer - The blade can be hydraulically angled from the operator's seat.

Power angle-tiltdozer - The blade can be hydraulically angled and tilted from the operator's seat. The push arms
are normally mounted inside the track frame. Also known as PAT blade or six-way blade.

Semi-U-dozer - Blade having "wings" that curve inward slightly to minimize spillage.

Straight dozer - This blade is suited for cutting and dozing heavy materials. A straight tiltdozer is equipped with a tilt
cylinder(s) to move the blade from side-to-side in order to adjust the desired cutting position.

U-dozer - Large capacity blade with "wings" that curve inward located on the ends of the blade. This minimizes
materials spillage.

PAGE 24
 This information has been gathered to provide data on the performance of KOMATSU
and competitive machines under actual job conditions. Every effort was made to ensure
reliable results. However, because of the many variables peculiar to each job (including
material characteristics, operator efficiency, labor and other costs, haul road conditions
and altitude), neither KOMATSU LTD. nor any of its distributors can or does warrant
expressly or implicitly that the Komatsu or competitive equipment referred to will achieve
the performance or incur the costs indicated under other, though similar, circumstances.
The information contained herein is intended for circulation only to Komatsu employees
and to those distributor employees, whose duties require knowledge of such reports and
is intended solely for the information and training of these readers. UNAUTHORIZED
USE OF THIS DOCUMENT IS HEREBY PROHIBITED AND THOSE RESPONSIBLE
FOR SUCH USE SHALL BE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY DAMAGES WHICH
THIRD PARTIES MAY INCUR AS A RESULT OF SUCH USE. Any reproduction of this
release without the foregoing explanation is prohibited.

Standard and optional equipment may vary depending on regional requirement.