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APPENDIX 1 ■ 1

WEB APPENDIX 1: AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS


OF INTEREST TO DESIGNERS,
ARCHITECTS, AND DRAFTERS
WEB SITES
ANSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .www.ansi.org
ASME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .www.asme.org

TITLE OF STANDARD
Abbreviations for Use on Drawings and Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y1.1—1999
American National Standard Drafting Practice:
Metric Drawing Sheet Size and Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.1M—1995
Decimal Inch Drawing Sheet Size and Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.1—1995
Line Conventions and Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.2M—1992 (R1998)
Multi and Sectional View Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.3M—1994 (R1999)
Pictorial Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.4—1989 (R1999)
Revision of Engineering Drawings and Associated Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.35M—1992
Dimensioning and Tolerancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5M—1994(R1999)
Dimensioning and Tolerancing with Mathematical Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5.1M—1994 (R1999)
Certification of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5.2—(1995)
Screw Thread Representation, Engineering Drawing and Related
Documentation Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.6—1978 (R1998)
Engineering Drawing and Related Documentation Practices—
Screw Thread Representation (Metric Supplement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.6AM—1981 (R1998)
Gears and Splines
Gear Drawing Standards—Part 1, for Spur, Helical, Double Helical, and Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.7.1—1971 (R1998)
Gear and Spline Drawing Standards—Part 2, Bevel and Hypoid Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.7.2—1978 (R1999)
Castings and Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.8M—1989 (R1996)
Engineering Drawing and Related Documentation Practices—
Mechanical Spring Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.13M—1981 (R1998)
Electrical and Electronics Diagrams (includes supplements ANSI Y14.15a—1971
and ANSI Y14.15b—1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.15—1966 (R1988)
Fluid Power Systems and Products—Moving Parts Fluid Controls—
Method of Diagramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME/(NFPA) T3.28.9R1—1989
Engineering Drawings and Related Documentation Practices—Optical Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.18M—1986 (R1998)
Types and Applications of Engineering Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.24—1999 (R2000)
Digital Representation for Communication of Product Definition Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .US PRO/IPO—100—1993
Chassis Frames—Passenger Car and Light Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.32.1M—1999
Parts Lists, Data Lists, and Index Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.34M—1989
Surface Texture Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.36—1978 (R1996)
Graphic Symbols:
Electrical Wiring and Layout Diagrams Used in Architecture
and Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.9—1972 (R1989)
Plumbing Fixtures for Diagrams Used in Architecture and Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.4—1977 (R1999)
Railroad Maps and Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.7—1972 (R1994)
Fluid Power Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.10—1967 (R1999)
Process Flow Diagrams in the Petroleum and Chemical Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.11—1961 (R1998)
Mechanical and Acoustical Elements as Used in Schematic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.18—1972 (R1998)
Pipe Fittings, Valves, and Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/ASME Y32.2.3—1949 (R1999)
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.2.4—1949 (R1998)
Heat-Power Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.2.6M—1950 (R1999)
Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/AWS A2.4—1993
Letter Symbols:
Glossary of Terms Concerning Letter Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.1—1972 (R1988)
Quantities Used in Electrical Science and Electrical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/IEEE 280—1985 (R1992)
Letter Symbols and Abbreviations for Quantities Used in Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/ASME Y10.11—1984
Chemical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.12—1955 (R1988)
Illuminating Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.18—1967 (R1977)
Mathematical Signs and Symbols for Use in Physical Sciences and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/IEEE 260.3—1993
Engineering Drawing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.100M—1998
Engineering Drawings and Associated Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.35M—1997
2 ■ Appendix 2

WEB APPENDIX 2: DIMENSIONING AND


TOLERANCING SYMBOLS
APPENDIX 3 ■ 3

WEB APPENDIX 3: DESIGNATION OF WELDING AND


ALLIED PROCESSES BY LETTERS
Welding and Letter Welding and Letter
Allied Processes Designation Allied Processes Designation

adhesive bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABD resistance spot welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RSW


arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AW upset welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UW
atomic hydrogen welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AHW high frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UW-HF
bare metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BMAW induction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UW-I
carbon arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAW soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S
gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAW-G dip soldering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS
shielded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAW-S furnace soldering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FS
twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAW-T induction soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IS
electrogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EGW infrared soldering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IRS
flux cored arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FCAW iron soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INS
gas metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GMAW resistance soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RS
pulsed arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GMAW-P torch soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TS
short circuiting arc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GMAW-S wave soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WS
gas tungsten arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GTAW solid-state welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SSW
pulsed arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GTAW-P coextrusion welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CEW
plasma arc welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAW cold welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CW
shielded metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SMAW diffusion welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DFW
stud arc welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SW explosion welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXW
submerged arc welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAW forge welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FOW
series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAW-S friction welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FRW
brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B hot pressure welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HPW
arc brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AB roll welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ROW
block brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BB ultrasonic welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . USW
carbon arc brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAB thermal cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TC
diffusion brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DFB arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
dip brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DB air carbon arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AAC
flow brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLB carbon arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAC
furnace brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FB gas metal arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GMAC
induction brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IB gas tungsten arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GTAC
infrared brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IRB metal arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAC
resistance brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RB plasma arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAC
torch brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TB shielded metal arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SMAC
other welding processes electron beam cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBC
electron beam welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBW laser beam cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC
high vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBW-HV air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC-A
medium vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBW-MV evaporative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC-EV
nonvacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EBW-NV inert gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC-IG
electroslag welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ESW oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC-O
flow welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLOW oxygen cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OC
induction welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IW chemical flux cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FOC
laser beam welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LBW metal powder cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . POC
thermit welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TW oxyfuel gas cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC
oxyfuel gas welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFW oxyacetylene cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC-A
air acetylene welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AAW oxyhydrogen cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC-H
oxyacetylene welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OAW oxynatural gas cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC-N
oxyhydrogen welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OHW oxypropane cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFC-P
pressure gas welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PGW oxygen arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AOC
resistance welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RW oxygen lance cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOC
flash welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FW thermal spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THSP
percussion welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PEW arc spraying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASP
projection welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PW flame spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLSP
resistance seam welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RSEW plasma spraying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSP
high frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RSEW-HF
induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RSEW-I
4 ■ Appendix 4

WEB APPENDIX 4: SYMBOLS FOR PIPE FITTINGS


AND VALVES
APPENDIX 5 ■ 5

WEB APPENDIX 5: MATH INSTRUCTION


ARITHMETIC
Common Fractions Examples are:
375 3
To add and subtract common fractions, the denominators (bot- .375 = =
1000 8
toms) must be the same.
14 7
1 3 4 .014 = =
+ = 1000 500
16 16 16 75 3
6.75 = 6 =6
Normally, fractions are reduced to lowest form by dividing 100 4
both the numerator (top) and denominator by the same num-
ber. Dividing by 4 reduces the previous fraction. With the advent of computers and calculators, it has become
important to know how to round decimal answers properly.
4 1
= Look one place to the right of where the decimal is to be
16 4 rounded. If that digit is 5 or more, increase the value of the
To multiply fractions, the denominators do not have to be digit to the left of it by one; if it is 4 or less, do not increase the
the same. Simply multiply the numerators and denominators left digit. This concept is best grasped by viewing examples.
separately.
Rounding to the nearest hundredth:
1 2 2 1
× = = .275 becomes .28 (due to the 5 one place to the right of
4 3 12 6 the hundredth position)
To divide fractions, flip the second fraction upside down .273 become .27 (the 3 is “4 or less”)
(invert the divisor), then multiply. .27499 also becomes .27 (the 9s have no effect on round-
1 2 1 3 3 ing to hundredths)
÷ = × = .279 becomes .28 (the 9 is “5 or more”)
4 3 4 2 8
When multiplying and dividing mixed numbers, it is neces- Rounding to the nearest tenth:
sary to convert them to fractions first. This is done by multi- .275 becomes .3
plying the whole number by the denominator of the fraction .274 also becomes .3 (look only to the 7)
and adding that to the top of the fraction for a new numerator. .249 becomes .2 (look only to the 4)
.05 becomes .1
3  6 × 8 + 3  51
6 = = .04 becomes .0
8  8  8
.729 becomes .7
For example:
1 2 9 11 99 1 Percentages
2 ×3 = × = =8
4 3 4 3 12 4
The final answer was obtained by dividing the 99 by the 12 Percents are hundredths:
with long division. 5 1
5% = =
100 20
Decimal Fractions 50 1
50% = =
100 2
To convert a common fraction to a decimal fraction, divide the
numerator by the denominator. Dividing 3 by 8 shows that Percentages are easiest to calculate in decimal form. To con-
vert a percentage to a decimal, move the decimal point two
3
= .375 places to the left. Examples follow.
8
5% = .05
To convert a decimal to common fraction form, place the 50% = .50
decimal number without the decimal point on top and place its 3.75% = .0375
place value, given by this scheme, on the bottom of the fraction.
Success in working percentage problems requires correctly
identifying three pieces of the problem called the part, the base,
0 . 1 4 1 5 9 2 and the rate. The part is a portion of any whole amount, the
tenth base is the whole amount, and the rate is the number with the
hundredth percent sign (%).
thousandth
To find the part:
ten thousandth
hundred thousandth 1. Convert the rate to decimal form.
millionth 2. Multiply the rate by the base.
6 ■ Appendix 5

3 
Example 1: What is 15% of 233? Example 3: √125 = 5. This cube root of 125 equals 5 because
In this example the rate is 15% and 233 is the whole amount 5 cubed is 125.
or base. The answer is 34.95 because 15% × 233 = .15 × 233 Example 4: The square root is the most common root. The
= 34.95. 2
square root of 49 may be written √49, but the index number 2

Example 2: What is 5.25% of 1000? is usually suppressed for square root. Write √49 = 7. It equals 7
The answer is 52.5 because .0525 × 1000 = 52.5. because 7 squared is 49.
Example 3: What is 125% of 500? Here are other examples of powers and roots.
3 
The answer is 625 because 1.25 × 500 = 625. 25 = 32 62 = 36 √ 8 = 2 √ 16 = 4
To find the base: All scientific calculators have buttons or sequences of but-
1. Convert the rate to decimal form. tons that make finding powers and roots very easy. The book-
2. Divide the part by the rate. let that comes with the calculator should be consulted to learn
how to do this.
Example 4: 10% of what number is 375?
This problem requires realizing that 375 is a portion of some
unknown whole amount. So you know the rate and part and ALGEBRA
are seeking the base. Signed Numbers
The answer is 3,750 because 375 ÷ .10 = 3,750.
Example 5: An old copy machine is known to waste 2% of the The sign of a number is found immediately to the left of a num-
copies it makes. How many copies were run if 14 were wasted? ber. If there is no sign, this means the same as if there is a plus
The wasted copies are the part and the entire run is the base, sign. For example, in the expression “4 – 7” the 4 is a positive
so the answer is 14 ÷ .02 = 700 copies run. number and the 7 is a negative number. Multiplication of two
To find the rate: numbers is indicated by parentheses around one or both num-
bers and no sign between the numbers: (–3)(–6) is multiplica-
1. Divide the part by the base. tion, but (–3) + (–6) is not multiplication. Here are other exam-
2. Convert the answer to percent by moving the decimal ples of multiplication:
point two places to the right. (2)(–3) = –6
Example 6: What percent of 500 is 125? –7(8) = –56
This type of problem requires identifying which number is (–5)(–6) = 30
the base. From the wording, the whole amount is 500 so that is 7(4) = 28
the base, and 125 is a portion of this whole amount, making it As these examples show, the rules for signs when multiply-
the part. Often, the base is the number immediately following ing are:
the word of. The answer to the problem is 25% because
125 ÷ 500 = .25, which equals 25%. 1. If signs are the same, the answer is positive.
Example 7: A machine cutting tool has a useful life of 110 hours. 2. If signs are different, the answer is negative.
If the tool is used 50 hours, what percentage of its useful life is Multiplication is also indicated by a raised dot (not to be
left? confused with a decimal point).
In this problem first find the useful life left in hours:
110 – 50 = 60. So this problem is the same as asking what per-
–4 ⋅ –3 = 12
cent of 110 is 60. The solution is 54.5% because 60 ÷ 110 = The sign rules for division are identical to multiplication. For
.545 (after rounding), then .545 = 54.5%. example, –9 ÷ 3 = –3. Often in algebra, division is indicated as
a fraction. The previous division example might be expressed as
Example 8: $200 is what percent of $50?
The answer is 400% because 200 ÷ 50 = 4 = 400%. The −9
moral of this example is that the base is not always the larger 3
number.
The rules for combining (adding and subtracting) signed
Powers and Roots numbers are:
1. If signs are the same, add the numbers and give the answer
A power is a small, raised number and stands for repeated the common sign.
multiplication. 2. If signs are different, subtract the two numbers and give
Example 1: 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125. This third power is called a the answer the sign of the bigger.
cube. The example is read, “5 cubed equals 125.”
Example 1: –1 +3
Example 2: 72 = 7 × 7 = 49. The second power is the square, and This is not a multiplication problem because there are no
this example is read, “7 squared equals 49.” parentheses or raised dots; it is a combining problem. The 1 is
A root is the reverse of a power. negative and the 3 is positive, so their signs are different, which
APPENDIX 5 ■ 7

calls for subtraction: 1 from 3 leaves 2. The 3 is bigger than the 1. Work within parentheses first.
1 so the answer gets the positive sign of the 3. Thus, –1 +3 = 2. 2. Then do powers and roots.
Example 2: –4 –6 3. Then do multiplication and division.
This is also a combining problem. Both numbers are nega-
4. Finally, do addition and subtraction.
tive so their signs are the same. Add 4 and 6 and get 10. Give
the answer the common negative sign, so –4 –6 = –10. It does Example 2: (5 – 1)2 – 3 = (4)2 – 3 = 16 – 3 = 13
not matter whether you interpret this problem as “–4 add –6”
Example 3: 17 – 8 ÷ 4 = 17 – 2 = 15 (It is tempting to subtract
or “–4 subtract +6,” but the easiest interpretation is “combine
the 8 from the 17, but the division must be done first.)
–4 and –6.” Here are further examples of combining problems:
+7 –5 = +2 Solving Simple Equations
+5 –7 = –2
–3 –1 = –4 There are basically two operations that solve simple equations.
–4 +3 = –1 One operation involves combining, the other involves multi-
Sometimes parentheses do occur in combining problems plying. When a letter (unknown) has a number combined with
involving equations. Such problems require parentheses to first it, move that number to the other side of the equal sign but also
be removed by using the rules of multiplication on the signs change its sign.
around the left parenthesis of each pair. The following example
illustrates this. Example 1: x + 5 = 7
Moving the +5 to the right side of the equation and chang-
Example 3: (–3) + (–6) ing its sign to –5 gives x = 7 – 5. Evaluating x = 2.
The (–3) has no sign in front so a positive sign can be
attached: +(–3). Now the signs around the left parenthesis sym- Example 2: 10 = –4 + y
bol are + and –. These signs are different, and applying the mul- 10 +4 = +y
tiplication sign rule for them (different signs, answer is nega- or just: 10 +4 = y
tive) resolves them into a single negative (–) sign. Likewise, the so: 14 = y
signs around the left parenthesis of the 6 resolves them into a or: y = 14
single negative (–) sign. So the problem (–3) + (–6) is the same Example 3: 3+z=2
as –3 –6. Using the combining rules on this, –3 –6 = –9. z=2–3
Example 4: –4 – (–5) = –4 +5 = 1 z = –1

Example 5: 6 – (7) = +6 – (+7) = +6 –7 = –1 Example 4: Solve for x.


Sometimes technical publications and applications omit the x + abc = z
parentheses and show just the double signs. Solve such com- x = z – abc
bining problems in the same way: When a letter is being multiplied by a number, divide both
–4 – –5 = –4 +5 = 1 sides of the equation by that number.
Here are further examples of combining problems: Example 5: 5 x = 15
–4 – (–4) = –4 +4 = 0 5 x 15
=
3 – (–3) = 3 + 3 = 6 5 5
2 + (–7) – (8) = 2 – 7 –8 = –5 –8 = –13 x=3
Example 6: −2 y = 10
Evaluating Expressions −2 y 10
=
−2 −2
When using formulas, the first step is to replace (substitute) y = −5
the letters with numbers. The resulting expression is then
Example 7: Ax = B
solved by applying the rules for signed numbers. Ax B
=
Example 1 (temperature): Find F if C = –10 using the formula A A
F = 1.8 C + 32 x=
B
Replacing the letters with numbers gives F = (1.8) (–10) + 32. A
In algebra, when a letter is next to a number and there is no Conversely, if the problem has division, multiply.
+ or – sign, multiplication is indicated. This formula calls for C Example 8: x
to be multiplied by 1.8: (1.8) (–10) = –18. So we now have =6
2
F = –18 + 32, which gives F = 14.
 x
Since most formulas involve a mixture of addition, multipli- () ( )( )
2  = 6 2
 2
cation, and other math operations, it is necessary to follow the
worldwide order of operations when evaluating expressions: x = 12
8 ■ Appendix 5

The solution of larger simple equations involves applying Example 3: A cylindrical container holds 1,000 gallons of oil
these two basic operations more than once. when filled to a depth of 8 feet. How many gallons are there
when the depth is 31⁄2 feet?
Example 9: 5 x + 7 = 22
5 x = 22 − 7
5 x = 15
5 x 15
=
5 5
x=3
Example 10: −2 y − 9 = 11
−2 y = 11 + 9
−2 y = 20
−2 y 20
=
2 −2
y = −10
To solve an equation with a letter squared, take the square
FIGURE 1 ■ A cylindrical container.
root of both sides of the equation.
Example 11: x 2 = 49
x 2 = 49 Set up a proportion.
x = 7 and x = −7 1000 gallons x gallons
=

( because − 7 −7 also equals 49 ) 8 feet 3.5 feet
Conversely, to solve an equation with the square root of a (8)( x ) = (1000 )( 3.5)
letter, square both sides of the equation. 8 x = 3500
Example 12: y =8 x = 437.5 gallons

( y)
2
= 82
y = 64

Ratio and Proportion GEOMETRY


One very common and useful type of equation is called a pro- Two-Dimensional Figures
portion. Each side of a proportion is a fraction or ratio. To solve
a proportion by cross-multiplying, multiply the top of one ratio This section contains formulas for the perimeter (P) and area
by the bottom of the other and set them equal. of common geometric figures the drafter may encounter.
Perimeter is the straight-line (linear) distance around a fig-
Example 1: x 15
= ure, and area is the number of square units that fit within a
6 5 figure.
( )( ) ( )( )
x 5 = 6 15
5 x = 90
5 x 90
=
5 5 Right Triangle
x = 18 A + B = 90°
An older way to express this example is X:6::15:5. The x and x2 + y2 = r2
5 were the extremes and the 6 and 15 the means. P=x+y+r
1
Example 2: On a drawing, the scale is 1:150. What actual length Area = xy
does a 3.25'' line of the drawing represent? 2
Set up a proportion.
1'' 3.25''
=
150'' x
(1) x = (150 )( 3.25)
x = 487.5'' or 40' −7 1 2 '' FIGURE 2 ■ Right triangle.
APPENDIX 5 ■ 9

General Triangle
A + B + C = 180° Circle
P=a+b+c R = radius FIGURE 7 ■ Circle.
D = diameter
1 FIGURE 3 ■ General triangle.
Area = bh π = 3.14159 . . .
2 C = the circle’s perimeter, or circumference
( )( )( )
Area = s s − a s − b s − c where s =
1
2
(
a+b+c ) C = πD
Area = πr2
πD 2
Area =
4
Rectangle
P = 2a + 2b
Area = ab
d = a 2 + b2 Circle Inscribed within a Right Triangle
ab
R=
a+b+c

FIGURE 4 ■ Rectangle.

Parallelogram
A + B = 180°
P = 2a + 2b
Area = bh

FIGURE 8 ■ Circle within a right triangle.


FIGURE 5 ■ Parallelogram.

Circle Inscribed within a General Triangle


( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) where s = 1
R=
s 2
(a + b + c)

Rhombus
P = 4a
FIGURE 6 ■ Rhombus.
1
Area = pq
2
Note: The letters and p and q represent diagonal distances.
p2 + q2 = 4a2 FIGURE 9 ■ Circle within a general triangle.
10 ■ Appendix 5

Circle Circumscribed around a Right Triangle Regular Polygons


1 n = number of sides
R= c P = nf
2
 n −2
Note: The letter c is the diameter of the circle as well as the θ=  180°
hypotenuse of the right triangle.  n 
180°
f = 2R sin
n
1 360°
Area = nR 2 sin
2 n
f
d=
180°
2 tan
n FIGURE 13 ■ Regular polygon.

Arc of a Circle
FIGURE 10 ■ Circle around a right triangle.
s = length of the arc of the circle (arc length)
Note: θ must be in radians.
s = Rθ
Circle Circumscribed around a General Triangle θ
F = 2R sin
a b c 2
R= = =
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C θ
g = R cos
2
h =R−g

FIGURE 14 ■ Arc of a circle.

Ellipse
FIGURE 11 ■ Circle around a general triangle.
x2 + y2
P = 2π
2
(The perimeter formula is approximate.)
Angle Relationship for the Genera1 Triangle Inscribed Area = πxy
within a Circle (The area formula is exact.)
1
B= D
2

FIGURE 12 ■ Angles within an inscribed triangle. FIGURE 15 ■ Ellipse.


APPENDIX 5 ■ 11

Three-Dimensional Figures TRIGONOMETRY


This section shows formulas for total surface area (S) in square
Right Triangle Trigonometry
units and volume (V) in cubic units for common shapes.
Trigonometry is based upon the lengths of sides and the angles
Rectangular Solid of right triangles. It is best to treat the trigonometric function
S = 2(wh + lw + lh) definitions as simply working formulas involving two sides and
V = lwh an angle of the right triangle of Figure 20 and to use the for-
mula that involves the information in the problem. Here are the
definitions of the trig functions: In the right triangle, the
longest side (r) is called the hypotenuse. The side (y) is called
the opposite side, because it is opposite to angle (A). Side (x) is
FIGURE 16 ■ Rectangular solid. called the adjacent side.
y
Sin A =
Cylinder r
S = 2πR2 + 2πRh x
Cos A =
V = πR2h r
y
Tan A =
x
The first formula says that dividing the length of side y by
hypotenuse r gives a number called the sine of angle A. (Sine is
abbreviated “sin” but still pronounced sine.)

FIGURE 17 y
■ Cylinder. Sin A =
r
x
Right Circular Cone Cos A =
r
S = πR 2 + πRL
y
L = R2 + h2 Tan A =
x
1
V = πR 2 h
3

FIGURE 20 ■ Right triangle used for trigonometry definitions.

Example 1: A very common right triangle is the 3-4-5 right trian-


gle. In Figure 21, find the sine of angle A.
Using the sine formula:
y
FIGURE 18 ■ Right circular cone. Sin A =
r
3
Sin A = = .6
Sphere 5
S = 4 πR 2
S = πD 2 , where D = 2R
4
V = πR 3
3

FIGURE 19 ■ Sphere. FIGURE 21 ■ 3-4-5 right triangle.


12 ■ Appendix 5

The usefulness of trigonometry is that it provides a connec- The answer is


tion between the lengths of sides and measurement of angles.
50 35
Knowing, for example, that sin A = .6, a calculator can be used 4+ + = 4 + .8333 + .0097
to find angle A. For most calculators, entering .6 then pushing 60 3600
INV and SIN (or 2ND and SIN) gives angle A as 36.9°. = 4.843 or 4.84°
Similarly, cosine is the adjacent side divided by the Example 2: Convert 10.268° to degrees, minutes, and seconds.
hypotenuse, and tangent is the opposite side divided by the Working with the decimal fraction of the degrees, .268 × 60
adjacent side. An additional formula used to solve right trian- = 16.08 for 16 whole minutes. Then, working with the decimal
gles involves only the sides. It is the Pythagorean theorem: fraction of minutes, .08 × 60 = 4.8 or (rounding off) 5 whole
x2 + y2 = r2 seconds. The complete answer becomes 10°16'5''.
Here are additional conversion facts:
Example 2: Find the diagonal distance in Figure 22 for a rec-
tangular plate. Using the formula: Degrees and Radians:
x2 + y2 = r2 180° = π radians (where π = 3.14159 . . .)
7 + 102 = r2
2
1 radian = about 57.3°
49 + 100 = r2 1° = about .01745 radian
149 = r2
r = 149 = 12.21'' Example 3: Convert 30° to radians (nearest thousandth). The
answer is 30 × .01745 = .5235 or .524 radian.

Example 4: Convert 2 radians to degrees (nearest tenth). The


answer is 2 × 57.3 = 114.6°.

Vectors
FIGURE 22 ■ Rectangular plate. A vector is a directed line segment, or arrow, with two attrib-
utes: length (magnitude) and angle (direction). Points in the
Example 3: Find the length of side x for the right triangle in Fig- plane may be specified by their x and y coordinates or by mag-
ure 23. nitude and direction of a vector with its tail at the origin and its
Because you know angle A and side y, use the tangent for- head at the point in the plane as shown in Figure 24.
mula; only tangent involves the unknown side x and the Vector notation and equations conform to the definitions of
known angle and side. the trig functions except that Greek letter θ (theta) is often
used for the angle A. Here are the conversion formulas:
y
tan A =
x Polar to Rectangular (vector form to x-y form):

tan 40° =
12'' x = r cos θ
x y = r sin θ
12''
.8391 = The x and y are also called vector components.
x
.8391 x = 12 ''
12''
x=
.8391
x = 14.3''
FIGURE 23 ■ Right triangle.

Angle Conversion and Arc Length


One degree equals 60 minutes of arc: 1° = 60'
One minute equals 60 seconds of arc: 1' = 60''
Therefore, 1° = 3600''
Example 1: Convert 4°50'35'' to decimal degrees (nearest
hundredth). FIGURE 24 ■ Vector.
APPENDIX 5 ■ 13

Example 1: Find the components of the vector shown in Figure 25. line), and letter b is the y-axis intercept (the point on the verti-
Using the conversion formulas with r = 10 and θ = 30°, cal axis that the line crosses). For example, Figure 27 is the
x = (10)(cos 30°) = (10)(.8660) = 8.66 lb, and graph of the equation y = 2x + 5.
y = (10)(sin 30°) = (10)(.5) = 5 lb

FIGURE 27 ■ Graph of y = 2x + 5.

Example 1: What is the equation of the line in Figure 28?


FIGURE 25 ■ Vector in polar form. The slope is 12 ÷ 3 = 4 and the y-intercept is -5, so the equa-
tion is y = 4x – 5.
Rectangular to Polar (x-y form to vector form): Positive slopes in math slant up and to the right; negative
slopes slant down and to the right.
r= x2 + y2
y
θ = Inv Tan
x
Example 2: Convert the coordinates (7,13) in Figure 26 to polar
form.
Using the conversion formulas with x = 7 and y = 13,
r= 7 2 + 132 = 49 + 169 = 218 = 14.8
13
θ = Inv Tan = Inv Tan 1.857 = 61.7°
7

FIGURE 28 ■ Graph requiring an equation.

Example 2: What is the equation of the line in Figure 29?


The slope is –6 ÷ 3 = –2 and the y-intercept is 4, so the equa-
tion is y = –2x + 4.

FIGURE 26 ■ Vector in rectangular form.

Slope of a Line
The slope-intercept form of the equation of a straight line is:
y = mx + b. Letter m is the slope (rise divided by run of the FIGURE 29 ■ Graph requiring an equation.
14 ■ Appendix 5

Oblique Triangles When an oblique triangle has an angle greater than 90°, care
must be taken when using the Law of Sines to find that angle.
In trig, lowercase letters usually stand for the lengths of sides The calculator gives only angles less than 90° when INV SIN is
and capital letters stand for angles, as shown in Figure 30. pushed. A theorem from trig class must be used: sin θ = sin
(180° – θ), which means the calculator answer must be sub-
tracted from 180° to get the true answer. The next example
illustrates this.

Example 2: Find angle A in Figure 32. First, convert to inches:


16' – 8'' = 200'' and 14' – 2'' = 170'', then using the version of
the Law of Sines involving a’s and c’s:
FIGURE 30 ■ General oblique triangle.
a c
To solve a triangle means to find all missing angles and =
sides. The Law of Sines can be used to solve a general triangle Sin A Sin C
when one side and the opposite angle are known. The Law of 200 170
=
Sines is usually expressed as: Sin A Sin 15°
200 170
a b c =
= = Sin A .2588
Sin A Sin B Sin C
170 Sin A = ( 200 )(.2588)
It is really three separate equations; each one is a proportion.
170 Sin A = 51.76
a b 170 Sin A 51.76
= =
Sin A Sin B 170 170
b c Sin A = .3045
=
Sin B Sin C A = Inv Sin .3045
c a
= A = 17.7°
Sin C Sin A
Example 1: Find side b in the triangle shown in Figure 31.
Angle B can be found quickly knowing that the sum of the
angles of any triangle is 180°.
B = 180 – (80 + 45) = 180 – 125 = 55°
Now the Law of Sines can be used:
a b
=
Sin A Sin B
14 b
=
Sin 45° Sin 55°
14 b
=
.7071 .8192
.7071b = (.8192)(14 )
.7071b = 11.486
FIGURE 32 ■ Oblique triangle with unknown angle.
b = 16.2''

Angle A is known to be greater than 90°, so A = 180 –


17.7 = 162.3°. This final subtraction from 180 is taken only
when finding an angle greater than 90° with the Law of
Sines.
Sometimes a side and opposite angle are not available. In
that case, the triangle may be solved with the Law of Cosines.
Again, there are three versions of this law.
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
FIGURE 31 ■ Oblique triangle with unknown side. c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
APPENDIX 5 ■ 15

Example 3: Find side b of the triangle in Figure 33. Example 4: Find angle A of the triangle in Figure 34.
Use the version of the Law of Cosines containing angle B. Use the version of the Law of Cosines containing angle A.
60 2 = 100 2 + 87 2 − 2(100 )( 87 ) cos A
b = 11 + 14 − 2(11)(14 ) ( cos 130° )
2 2 2
3, 600 = 10 , 000 + 7 , 569 − 17 , 400 cos A
b = 121+ 196 − 2(11)(14 ) ( −.6428)
2 3, 600 = 17 , 569 − 17 , 400 cos A
b 2 = 121+ 196 + 197.98 3,600 − 17,569 = −17,400 cos A
b 2 = 514.98 −13,969 = −17,400 cos A
b = 514.98 −13, 969 −17,400 cos A
=
b = 22.7'' −17 , 400 −17,400
.8028 = cos A
A = Inv cos .8028
A = 36.6°

FIGURE 33 ■ Oblique triangle with unknown side.

FIGURE 34 ■ Oblique triangle with unknown angle.

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