Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TITLE OF STANDARD
Abbreviations for Use on Drawings and Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y1.1—1999
American National Standard Drafting Practice:
Metric Drawing Sheet Size and Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.1M—1995
Decimal Inch Drawing Sheet Size and Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.1—1995
Line Conventions and Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.2M—1992 (R1998)
Multi and Sectional View Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.3M—1994 (R1999)
Pictorial Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.4—1989 (R1999)
Revision of Engineering Drawings and Associated Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.35M—1992
Dimensioning and Tolerancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5M—1994(R1999)
Dimensioning and Tolerancing with Mathematical Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5.1M—1994 (R1999)
Certification of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.5.2—(1995)
Screw Thread Representation, Engineering Drawing and Related
Documentation Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.6—1978 (R1998)
Engineering Drawing and Related Documentation Practices—
Screw Thread Representation (Metric Supplement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.6AM—1981 (R1998)
Gears and Splines
Gear Drawing Standards—Part 1, for Spur, Helical, Double Helical, and Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.7.1—1971 (R1998)
Gear and Spline Drawing Standards—Part 2, Bevel and Hypoid Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.7.2—1978 (R1999)
Castings and Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.8M—1989 (R1996)
Engineering Drawing and Related Documentation Practices—
Mechanical Spring Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.13M—1981 (R1998)
Electrical and Electronics Diagrams (includes supplements ANSI Y14.15a—1971
and ANSI Y14.15b—1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.15—1966 (R1988)
Fluid Power Systems and Products—Moving Parts Fluid Controls—
Method of Diagramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME/(NFPA) T3.28.9R1—1989
Engineering Drawings and Related Documentation Practices—Optical Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.18M—1986 (R1998)
Types and Applications of Engineering Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.24—1999 (R2000)
Digital Representation for Communication of Product Definition Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .US PRO/IPO—100—1993
Chassis Frames—Passenger Car and Light Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.32.1M—1999
Parts Lists, Data Lists, and Index Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.34M—1989
Surface Texture Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.36—1978 (R1996)
Graphic Symbols:
Electrical Wiring and Layout Diagrams Used in Architecture
and Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.9—1972 (R1989)
Plumbing Fixtures for Diagrams Used in Architecture and Building Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.4—1977 (R1999)
Railroad Maps and Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.7—1972 (R1994)
Fluid Power Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.10—1967 (R1999)
Process Flow Diagrams in the Petroleum and Chemical Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.11—1961 (R1998)
Mechanical and Acoustical Elements as Used in Schematic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.18—1972 (R1998)
Pipe Fittings, Valves, and Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/ASME Y32.2.3—1949 (R1999)
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.2.4—1949 (R1998)
Heat-Power Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y32.2.6M—1950 (R1999)
Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/AWS A2.4—1993
Letter Symbols:
Glossary of Terms Concerning Letter Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.1—1972 (R1988)
Quantities Used in Electrical Science and Electrical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/IEEE 280—1985 (R1992)
Letter Symbols and Abbreviations for Quantities Used in Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/ASME Y10.11—1984
Chemical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.12—1955 (R1988)
Illuminating Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI Y10.18—1967 (R1977)
Mathematical Signs and Symbols for Use in Physical Sciences and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ANSI/IEEE 260.3—1993
Engineering Drawing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.100M—1998
Engineering Drawings and Associated Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ASME Y14.35M—1997
2 ■ Appendix 2
3
Example 1: What is 15% of 233? Example 3: √125 = 5. This cube root of 125 equals 5 because
In this example the rate is 15% and 233 is the whole amount 5 cubed is 125.
or base. The answer is 34.95 because 15% × 233 = .15 × 233 Example 4: The square root is the most common root. The
= 34.95. 2
square root of 49 may be written √49, but the index number 2
Example 2: What is 5.25% of 1000? is usually suppressed for square root. Write √49 = 7. It equals 7
The answer is 52.5 because .0525 × 1000 = 52.5. because 7 squared is 49.
Example 3: What is 125% of 500? Here are other examples of powers and roots.
3
The answer is 625 because 1.25 × 500 = 625. 25 = 32 62 = 36 √ 8 = 2 √ 16 = 4
To find the base: All scientific calculators have buttons or sequences of but-
1. Convert the rate to decimal form. tons that make finding powers and roots very easy. The book-
2. Divide the part by the rate. let that comes with the calculator should be consulted to learn
how to do this.
Example 4: 10% of what number is 375?
This problem requires realizing that 375 is a portion of some
unknown whole amount. So you know the rate and part and ALGEBRA
are seeking the base. Signed Numbers
The answer is 3,750 because 375 ÷ .10 = 3,750.
Example 5: An old copy machine is known to waste 2% of the The sign of a number is found immediately to the left of a num-
copies it makes. How many copies were run if 14 were wasted? ber. If there is no sign, this means the same as if there is a plus
The wasted copies are the part and the entire run is the base, sign. For example, in the expression “4 – 7” the 4 is a positive
so the answer is 14 ÷ .02 = 700 copies run. number and the 7 is a negative number. Multiplication of two
To find the rate: numbers is indicated by parentheses around one or both num-
bers and no sign between the numbers: (–3)(–6) is multiplica-
1. Divide the part by the base. tion, but (–3) + (–6) is not multiplication. Here are other exam-
2. Convert the answer to percent by moving the decimal ples of multiplication:
point two places to the right. (2)(–3) = –6
Example 6: What percent of 500 is 125? –7(8) = –56
This type of problem requires identifying which number is (–5)(–6) = 30
the base. From the wording, the whole amount is 500 so that is 7(4) = 28
the base, and 125 is a portion of this whole amount, making it As these examples show, the rules for signs when multiply-
the part. Often, the base is the number immediately following ing are:
the word of. The answer to the problem is 25% because
125 ÷ 500 = .25, which equals 25%. 1. If signs are the same, the answer is positive.
Example 7: A machine cutting tool has a useful life of 110 hours. 2. If signs are different, the answer is negative.
If the tool is used 50 hours, what percentage of its useful life is Multiplication is also indicated by a raised dot (not to be
left? confused with a decimal point).
In this problem first find the useful life left in hours:
110 – 50 = 60. So this problem is the same as asking what per-
–4 ⋅ –3 = 12
cent of 110 is 60. The solution is 54.5% because 60 ÷ 110 = The sign rules for division are identical to multiplication. For
.545 (after rounding), then .545 = 54.5%. example, –9 ÷ 3 = –3. Often in algebra, division is indicated as
a fraction. The previous division example might be expressed as
Example 8: $200 is what percent of $50?
The answer is 400% because 200 ÷ 50 = 4 = 400%. The −9
moral of this example is that the base is not always the larger 3
number.
The rules for combining (adding and subtracting) signed
Powers and Roots numbers are:
1. If signs are the same, add the numbers and give the answer
A power is a small, raised number and stands for repeated the common sign.
multiplication. 2. If signs are different, subtract the two numbers and give
Example 1: 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125. This third power is called a the answer the sign of the bigger.
cube. The example is read, “5 cubed equals 125.”
Example 1: –1 +3
Example 2: 72 = 7 × 7 = 49. The second power is the square, and This is not a multiplication problem because there are no
this example is read, “7 squared equals 49.” parentheses or raised dots; it is a combining problem. The 1 is
A root is the reverse of a power. negative and the 3 is positive, so their signs are different, which
APPENDIX 5 ■ 7
calls for subtraction: 1 from 3 leaves 2. The 3 is bigger than the 1. Work within parentheses first.
1 so the answer gets the positive sign of the 3. Thus, –1 +3 = 2. 2. Then do powers and roots.
Example 2: –4 –6 3. Then do multiplication and division.
This is also a combining problem. Both numbers are nega-
4. Finally, do addition and subtraction.
tive so their signs are the same. Add 4 and 6 and get 10. Give
the answer the common negative sign, so –4 –6 = –10. It does Example 2: (5 – 1)2 – 3 = (4)2 – 3 = 16 – 3 = 13
not matter whether you interpret this problem as “–4 add –6”
Example 3: 17 – 8 ÷ 4 = 17 – 2 = 15 (It is tempting to subtract
or “–4 subtract +6,” but the easiest interpretation is “combine
the 8 from the 17, but the division must be done first.)
–4 and –6.” Here are further examples of combining problems:
+7 –5 = +2 Solving Simple Equations
+5 –7 = –2
–3 –1 = –4 There are basically two operations that solve simple equations.
–4 +3 = –1 One operation involves combining, the other involves multi-
Sometimes parentheses do occur in combining problems plying. When a letter (unknown) has a number combined with
involving equations. Such problems require parentheses to first it, move that number to the other side of the equal sign but also
be removed by using the rules of multiplication on the signs change its sign.
around the left parenthesis of each pair. The following example
illustrates this. Example 1: x + 5 = 7
Moving the +5 to the right side of the equation and chang-
Example 3: (–3) + (–6) ing its sign to –5 gives x = 7 – 5. Evaluating x = 2.
The (–3) has no sign in front so a positive sign can be
attached: +(–3). Now the signs around the left parenthesis sym- Example 2: 10 = –4 + y
bol are + and –. These signs are different, and applying the mul- 10 +4 = +y
tiplication sign rule for them (different signs, answer is nega- or just: 10 +4 = y
tive) resolves them into a single negative (–) sign. Likewise, the so: 14 = y
signs around the left parenthesis of the 6 resolves them into a or: y = 14
single negative (–) sign. So the problem (–3) + (–6) is the same Example 3: 3+z=2
as –3 –6. Using the combining rules on this, –3 –6 = –9. z=2–3
Example 4: –4 – (–5) = –4 +5 = 1 z = –1
The solution of larger simple equations involves applying Example 3: A cylindrical container holds 1,000 gallons of oil
these two basic operations more than once. when filled to a depth of 8 feet. How many gallons are there
when the depth is 31⁄2 feet?
Example 9: 5 x + 7 = 22
5 x = 22 − 7
5 x = 15
5 x 15
=
5 5
x=3
Example 10: −2 y − 9 = 11
−2 y = 11 + 9
−2 y = 20
−2 y 20
=
2 −2
y = −10
To solve an equation with a letter squared, take the square
FIGURE 1 ■ A cylindrical container.
root of both sides of the equation.
Example 11: x 2 = 49
x 2 = 49 Set up a proportion.
x = 7 and x = −7 1000 gallons x gallons
=
⋅
( because − 7 −7 also equals 49 ) 8 feet 3.5 feet
Conversely, to solve an equation with the square root of a (8)( x ) = (1000 )( 3.5)
letter, square both sides of the equation. 8 x = 3500
Example 12: y =8 x = 437.5 gallons
( y)
2
= 82
y = 64
General Triangle
A + B + C = 180° Circle
P=a+b+c R = radius FIGURE 7 ■ Circle.
D = diameter
1 FIGURE 3 ■ General triangle.
Area = bh π = 3.14159 . . .
2 C = the circle’s perimeter, or circumference
( )( )( )
Area = s s − a s − b s − c where s =
1
2
(
a+b+c ) C = πD
Area = πr2
πD 2
Area =
4
Rectangle
P = 2a + 2b
Area = ab
d = a 2 + b2 Circle Inscribed within a Right Triangle
ab
R=
a+b+c
FIGURE 4 ■ Rectangle.
Parallelogram
A + B = 180°
P = 2a + 2b
Area = bh
Rhombus
P = 4a
FIGURE 6 ■ Rhombus.
1
Area = pq
2
Note: The letters and p and q represent diagonal distances.
p2 + q2 = 4a2 FIGURE 9 ■ Circle within a general triangle.
10 ■ Appendix 5
Arc of a Circle
FIGURE 10 ■ Circle around a right triangle.
s = length of the arc of the circle (arc length)
Note: θ must be in radians.
s = Rθ
Circle Circumscribed around a General Triangle θ
F = 2R sin
a b c 2
R= = =
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C θ
g = R cos
2
h =R−g
Ellipse
FIGURE 11 ■ Circle around a general triangle.
x2 + y2
P = 2π
2
(The perimeter formula is approximate.)
Angle Relationship for the Genera1 Triangle Inscribed Area = πxy
within a Circle (The area formula is exact.)
1
B= D
2
FIGURE 17 y
■ Cylinder. Sin A =
r
x
Right Circular Cone Cos A =
r
S = πR 2 + πRL
y
L = R2 + h2 Tan A =
x
1
V = πR 2 h
3
Vectors
FIGURE 22 ■ Rectangular plate. A vector is a directed line segment, or arrow, with two attrib-
utes: length (magnitude) and angle (direction). Points in the
Example 3: Find the length of side x for the right triangle in Fig- plane may be specified by their x and y coordinates or by mag-
ure 23. nitude and direction of a vector with its tail at the origin and its
Because you know angle A and side y, use the tangent for- head at the point in the plane as shown in Figure 24.
mula; only tangent involves the unknown side x and the Vector notation and equations conform to the definitions of
known angle and side. the trig functions except that Greek letter θ (theta) is often
used for the angle A. Here are the conversion formulas:
y
tan A =
x Polar to Rectangular (vector form to x-y form):
tan 40° =
12'' x = r cos θ
x y = r sin θ
12''
.8391 = The x and y are also called vector components.
x
.8391 x = 12 ''
12''
x=
.8391
x = 14.3''
FIGURE 23 ■ Right triangle.
Example 1: Find the components of the vector shown in Figure 25. line), and letter b is the y-axis intercept (the point on the verti-
Using the conversion formulas with r = 10 and θ = 30°, cal axis that the line crosses). For example, Figure 27 is the
x = (10)(cos 30°) = (10)(.8660) = 8.66 lb, and graph of the equation y = 2x + 5.
y = (10)(sin 30°) = (10)(.5) = 5 lb
FIGURE 27 ■ Graph of y = 2x + 5.
Slope of a Line
The slope-intercept form of the equation of a straight line is:
y = mx + b. Letter m is the slope (rise divided by run of the FIGURE 29 ■ Graph requiring an equation.
14 ■ Appendix 5
Oblique Triangles When an oblique triangle has an angle greater than 90°, care
must be taken when using the Law of Sines to find that angle.
In trig, lowercase letters usually stand for the lengths of sides The calculator gives only angles less than 90° when INV SIN is
and capital letters stand for angles, as shown in Figure 30. pushed. A theorem from trig class must be used: sin θ = sin
(180° – θ), which means the calculator answer must be sub-
tracted from 180° to get the true answer. The next example
illustrates this.
Example 3: Find side b of the triangle in Figure 33. Example 4: Find angle A of the triangle in Figure 34.
Use the version of the Law of Cosines containing angle B. Use the version of the Law of Cosines containing angle A.
60 2 = 100 2 + 87 2 − 2(100 )( 87 ) cos A
b = 11 + 14 − 2(11)(14 ) ( cos 130° )
2 2 2
3, 600 = 10 , 000 + 7 , 569 − 17 , 400 cos A
b = 121+ 196 − 2(11)(14 ) ( −.6428)
2 3, 600 = 17 , 569 − 17 , 400 cos A
b 2 = 121+ 196 + 197.98 3,600 − 17,569 = −17,400 cos A
b 2 = 514.98 −13,969 = −17,400 cos A
b = 514.98 −13, 969 −17,400 cos A
=
b = 22.7'' −17 , 400 −17,400
.8028 = cos A
A = Inv cos .8028
A = 36.6°