EE 221

AC Circuit Power Analysis

Instantaneous and average power
RMS value
Apparent power and power factor
Complex power
 Instantaneous Power
Product of time-domain voltage
and time-domain current
p(t) = v(t) i(t)
Determine maximum value
Transients
Steady-state steady-state

As the transient dies out, the

circuit returns to steady-state
operation. Since the only
source remaining in the circuit
is dc, the inductor eventually
acts as a short circuit
absorbing zero power.
 Power due to Sinusoidal Excitation

v(t) = Vm cos(t+) and i(t) = Im cos(t +)

p(t) = Vm Im cos(t+) cos(t +) = trigonometric

= Vm Im cos( - ) + Vm Im cos(2t + + ) identity

p(t) = Vm Im cos( - ) + Vm Im cos(2t + + )

instantaneous constant periodic

two parts independent of t period is T
average the "average" average is zero
periodic wanted unwanted
active or real
Power due to Sinusoidal Excitation
p(t) = Vm Im cos( - ) + Vm Im cos(2t + + )

voltage V = 40 V, impedance Z = 260 , = / 6 rad/s

I = 2-60 A
p(t) = 2 + 4 cos( / 3 - 60) W
 Power due to Sinusoidal Excitation
p(t) = Vm Im cos( - ) + Vm Im cos(2t + + )

Example 1: Average power delivered to resistor

T
2
PR = Vm Im cos( - )
= Vm Im cos(0)
1.5

= Vm Im 1

= R Im2 v(t), i(t), p(t) 0.5

= Vm2 / R 0

=1W -0.5

-1

-1.5
V = 2-45 V
R = 2 -2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
time (s)
 Power due to Sinusoidal Excitation
p(t) = Vm Im cos( - ) + Vm Im cos(2t + + )

Example 2: Average power delivered to purely reactive elements

T
2

PX = Vm Im cos( - ) 1.5

= Vm Im cos(90)
= 0 1

0.5
v(t), i(t), p(t)

-0.5

-1

-1.5

V = 2-45 V
-2
X = j2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

time (s)
 Power due to Sinusoidal Excitation
p(t) = Vm Im cos( - ) + Vm Im cos(2t + + )

Example 3: Voltage across impedance (V = 10025o V and Z = 5055o )

Determine active power absorbed.

I =V/Z
= 2 25-55
= 2 -30 V

= 1.7 - j A 25o

-30o
Z = 28.7 + j41.9 I

P = 22 28.7
= (1.72+12) 28.7
= 57.4 W
 Power due to Sinusoidal Excitation
p(t) = Vm Im cos( - ) + Vm Im cos(2t + + )

Example 4: (Chapter 11, Problem 8.)

In the circuit shown in Fig. 11.27, find the average power being (a) dissipated in the 3-
resistor; (b) generated by the source.

1
ZR = 3 + = 3 + 1 + j3 = 4 + j3
0.1 j 0.3
2 + j5 5 29
Ignore 30 on Vs , I R = 5 , IR =
6 + j8 10

(a) 1 5 29
2

P3 = 3 = 10.875 W
2 10

(b)
(2 + j5)(4 + j3)
Vs = 50 = 13.46351.94 V
6 + j8
1
Ps,gen = 13.463 5cos 51.94 = 20.75 W
2
 Maximum Power Transfer

A simple loop circuit used to illustrate the derivation

of the maximum power transfer theorem as it applies
to circuits operating in the sinusoidal steady state.
Zth = Rth + j Xth ZL = RL + j XL

ZL = Zth* RL = Rth and XL = - Xth

 Maximum Power Transfer
Example: (Chapter 11, Problem 12.) For the circuit of Fig. 11.30;
(a) what value of ZL will absorb a maximum average power?
(b) What is the value of this maximum power?

10 j
Vth = 120 = 107.33 116.57 V
10 + j 5
j10 (10 + j15)
Zth = = 8 j14
10 + j 5

(a) ZL = 8 + j14
107.33 116.57
(b) IL =
16
2
1 107.33
PL ,max = 8 = 180 W
2 16
 Effective Values
Measure for sinusoidal voltages and currents
Power outlets: 60 Hz, "voltage of 115V"
Not the mean of T (T/2)
Not the Amplitude ( 2 115V)
Measure of effectiveness of a source in delivering
power to a resistive load
Effective value of periodic current
is equal to the DC value that
delivers the same average power to resistor
i(t) R p(t) PR and compare to IDC R
 Effective Values
Mathematical expression
T T
1 2 R 2
P = i Rdt = i dt =I DC
2
R = I eff2 R
T 0 T 0
T
1 2
I eff =
T 0
i Rdt

(Square) root of the mean of the square current

rms value
Defined for all periodic signals
 Effective Values - Sinusoids
i(t) = Im cos(t +) with a period of T = 2/

2 /
T
1 2 1 1
= I m cos (t + )dt = I m 2 + 2 cos(2t + 2 ) dt
2
I eff
T 0 2 0

Im
I eff =
2

real quantity
independent of phase angle
equal to 0.707 the amplitude
example: 2-30o A delivers the same as IDC = 1A
 RMS value to compute average power

In general

P = Vm Im cos( - ) = Veff Ieff cos( - )

For resistors

P = Veff Ieff = Veff2 / R = Ieff2 R

Note:
We can use amplitude or rms value
Use V and V rms to designate voltages
 RMS value to compute average power
Example: (Chapter 11, Problem 30.)
The series combination of a 1-k resistor and a 2-H inductor must not dissipate more
than 250 mW of power at any instant. Assuming a sinusoidal current with =500 rad/s,
what is the largest rms current that can be tolerated?

The peak instantaneous power is 250 mW. The combination of elements yields
Z = 1000 + j1000 = 1414 45o .
Vm 0 Vm 45o
Arbitrarily designate V = Vm 0 , so that I = = A and Vm = 1414 Im.
Z 1414

We may write p(t) = Vm Im cos + Vm Im cos (2t + ) where = the angle of the
current (-45o). This function has a maximum value of VmIm cos + VmIm.

Thus, 0.250 = VmIm (1 + cos ) = (1414) Im2 (1.707) and Im = 14.39 mA. In terms
of rms current, the largest rms current permitted is
14.39m / 2 = 10.18 mA rms.
 Apparent Power
We had
P = Vm Im cos( - ) = Veff Ieff cos( - )

In case of direct current we would use voltage times current:

S = Veff Ieff

This is not the average power

Is the "apparent" power (S or AP)
Measured in volt-ampere or VA
(rather than W to avoid confusion)
Magnitude of S is always greater or equal to magnitude of P: |S| |P|
 Power Factor
Defined as the ratio of average (real) power to apparent power
PF = P / S = P / (Veff Ieff)
In the sinusoidal case the power factor is
PF = cos( - )
- is the angle the voltage leads the current: PF angle
note:
Purely resistive load has PF = 1
Purely reactive load has PF = 0
PF = 0.5 means a phase angle of 60
Resolve ambiguity
PF leading or lagging for capacitive or inductive load
 Apparent Power and Power Factor
Example: (Chapter 11, Problem 30.)
(a) Find the power factor at which the source in the circuit of Fig. 11.42 is operating. (b)
Find the average power being supplied by the source. (c) What size capacitor should be
placed in parallel with the source to cause its power factor to be unity? (d) Verify your
answers with PSpice.
120
(a) I s = = 9.214 26.25 A rms
j192
4+
12 + j16
PFs = cos 26.25 = 0.8969 lag

(b) Ps = 120 9.214 0.8969 = 991.7W

j 48 1
ZL = 4 + = 4+ (192 + j144)
3 + j4 25
11.68 j 5.76
(c) Z L = 11.68 + j 5.76 , YL =
11.682 + 5.762
j 5.76
j120 C = , C = 90.09 F
11.682 + 5.762
 Apparent Power and Power Factor
Example: (see also chapter 10)
(Chapter 11, Problem 30.)

(d) Examine simulation output file

(AC sweep at 60Hz).

FREQ VM($N_0003,0) VP($N_0003,0)

6.000E+01 1.200E+02 0.000E+00

FREQ IM(V_PRINT1) IP(V_PRINT1)

6.000E+01 9.215E+00 -2.625E+01 (a) and (b) are correct

Next, add a 90.09-F capacitor in parallel with the source:

(c) is correct (-9.810-5 degrees is
FREQ IM(V_PRINT1) IP(V_PRINT1)
6.000E+01 8.264E+00 -9.774E-05
essentially zero, for unity PF).
 Complex Power
Simplifies power calculations

We had p(t) = Veff Ieff cos( - ) + Vm Im cos(2t + + )

Where the average (real) power P = Veff Ieff cos( - )

Using complex nomenclature

P = Veff Ieff Re{ej( - )} = Veff Re{ej()} Ieff Re{e-j)}

phasor voltage complex conjugate of

phasor current
Hence P = Re{Veff I*eff}
Define S = Veff I*eff
 Complex Power
S = Veff I*eff can be written as S = Veff Ieff ej( - ) = P + jQ

magnitude equals PF angle reactive

apparent power power
average
|S| = S
(real)
Reactive power Q power
Imaginary part of complex power
Dimensions are those of P, S, AP=S (|S|)
Avoiding confusion by using volt-ampere-reactive or VAr
Q = Veff Ieff sin( - )
Physical interpretation:
Time rate of energy flow back&forth between source and reactive loads
Reactive components charge and discharge at 2 ( current flows)
 Complex Power (Example)
p(t) = Veff Ieff cos( - ) + Veff Ieff cos(2t + + )

|S| Q
P

voltage V = 40o V, impedance Z = 260o , I = 2-60o A, = / 6 rad/s

p(t) = 2 + 4 cos( / 3 - 60) W
voltage V = 2.830o Vrms, I = 2-60o Arms
S = P + jQ = V I* = 2W + j 3.46VAr = 4 60o VA
 Power Triangle
Commonly used graphical representation of

S = P + jQ = V I* = V (V/Z)* = V V* / Z* = |V|2 / Z* = |I|2 Z

Useful relationships: P = |S| cos(), Q = |S| sin(),
= power angle = tan-1(Q/P)
Q = P tan() S
Im
Quadrant means
1st - power factor is lagging, inductive load
|S|
4th - power factor is leading, capacitive load Q
Need only two quantities to find third Re
P
(4 60o VA = 2W + j 3.46VAr)
 Power and Phasors
Another interpretation of active and reactive power components
Current components
In phase with voltage - Ieff cos( - )
90 out of phase (quadrature component) - Ieff sin( - )
Multiplied by |V| results in P and Q

Veff
Im
Ieff cos( - ) Ieff sin| - |
-
Ieff
Re
 Power and Phasors
Example: (Chapter 11, Problem 42.)
Both sources are operating at the same frequency.
Find the complex power generated by each source
and the complex power absorbed by each passive
circuit element.

Vx 100 V V j100
+ x + x =0
6 + j4 j10 5
1 100
Vx + j 0.1 + 0.2 = + j 20
6 + j 4 6 + j 4
Vx = 53.35 42.66 V
100 53.35 42.66
I1 = = 9.806 64.44 A
6 + j4
1
S1. gen = 100 9.80664.44 = 211.5 + j 4423VA
.
2
 Power and Phasors
Example: (Chapter 11, Problem 42.)
Both sources are operating at the same
frequency. Find the complex power generated by
each source and the complex power absorbed by
each passive circuit element.

1
S 6, abs = 6 9.806 2 = 288.5 + j 0 VA
2
1
S j 4, abs = ( j 4) 9.806 2 = 0 + j192.3 VA
2
j100 53.35 42.66
I2 = = 14.99 121.6 ,
5
1
S 5 abs = 5 14.99 2 = 561.5 + j 0 VA
2
1
S 2, gen = ( j100)14.99 121.57 = 638.4 j 392.3 VA
2
2
1 53.35
S j10, abs = ( j10) = 0 j142.3 VA = 142.3 0 VA
-90
2 10
 Power Measurement
Wattmeter(hours) measures active load
Varmeter(hours) measures reactive load
Average PF is used to adjust consumer's bill
(industry has to pay for unwanted losses)

Complex power delivered to individual loads

equals their sum
no matter how loads are connected
S = V I* = V (I1 + I2)* = V (I*1 + I*2) = VI*1 + VI*2
 Power Factor Correction
Large industrial consumers pay penalty when PF < 0.85
Caused by inductive loads (motors)
Why: Causes increased
Device ratings
Transmission and distribution losses
Example:
$0.22/kVAr above 62% of average (real) power demand
S = P + jQ = P + j0.62P = P (1+j0.62) = P (1.7731.8)
Targets cos(31.8) = 0.85 (pay penalty when PF < 0.85)
Use compensation capacitors in parallel with load
 Power Factor Correction
Value of capacitance
P(tan old tan new )
C=
Vrms 2

corrects the PF angle from old to new at the specified frequency

and voltage

Derived from
Q = V2rms / Xc = V2rms C
(Qold - Qnew) / V2rms = C
P(tan old - tan new) / V2rms = C
 Complex Power
Example: Source of 115 Vrms supplies two loads. Loads are connected in parallel:
7kW / 3 kVAr and 4kVA at 0.85 pf lagging. Find the pf of the equivalent load as seen
from the input terminal.

S1 = 7000 + j 3000
S2 = 4k [cos() + j sin()] = 4k [0.85 + j sin(cos-1(0.85))] = 3400 + j 2107
S = S1 + S2 = 10400 + j 5107 = 11586 26.15
= tan-1(Q / P) = tan-1(5107 / 10400) = 26.15
cos() = cos 26.15 = 0.8976
Z = |V|2 / |S| = 1152 / 11586 = 1.142 (remember: S = |V|2 / Z*)
Z = 1.142 26.15 = 1.02 + j 0.5