ARTICLE IN PRESS

Crop Protection 26 (2007) 12191225

www.elsevier.com/locate/cropro

Effects of alternative weed management strategies on Commelina diffusa

Burm. infestations in Fairtrade banana (Musa spp.) in St. Vincent and
the Grenadines
Wendy Ann P. Isaaca,, Richard A.I. Brathwaitea, Jane E. Cohenb, Isaac Bekelea
a
Department of Food Production, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
b
Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica

Received 26 October 2006; accepted 27 October 2006

Abstract

Alternatives to herbicides are needed for weed management in banana cultivated under the Fairtrade system in the Windward Islands.
Field trials were conducted in established banana orchards under irrigated and non-irrigated regimes in the rainy and dry seasons,
20032004, to evaluate the effects of selected treatments on the weed composition response in elds previously infested with Commelina
diffusa Burm. The treatments consisted of three leguminous live mulches (Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC., Mucuna pruriens Bak. and
Arachis pintoi Krap. & Greg.), three non-living mulches (coffee hulls, banana mulch and clear plastic mulch), two herbicides (fomesafen
and glufosinate-ammonium) and two organic treatments (corn gluten meal and concentrated vinegar and acetic acid). Treatments
signicantly shifted the species composition away from Commelina diffusa to annual weed species such as Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. and
Cleome aculeate L. Banana mulch treatment provided the best control by signicantly reducing weed biomass and weed species
composition and was followed by Fomesafen, coffee hulls, clear plastic mulch and Desmodium heterocarpon. This study indicates further
research to rene mulched based weed management systems is needed in banana orchards.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Commelina diffusa; Fairtrade banana; Mulch; Weed composition; Weed biomass

1. Introduction need for more sustainable production systems, which use

The banana (Musa spp.) is the mainstay of the
agricultural and rural-based community life of St. Vincent
and the Grenadines in the Windward Islands and accounts
for 10% of the total exports. Bananas are primarily grown
on small farms averaging two hectares in size in hilly areas,
owned and worked by over 1000 local family farmers.
Many of these farmers produce their banana using the
Fairtrade market arrangement of the UK and Europe.
Fairtrade is a means of assisting small-scale and other
disadvantaged producers in developing countries to im-
prove their quality of life by providing a more protable
and stable trade relationship. Fairtrade also emphasizes the
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 868 662 2002x3323;
fax: +1 868 645 0479.
E-mail address: wisaac@fsa.uwi.tt (W.A.P. Isaac).
fewer or no chemicals, and, in particular, exclude the use of
traditional herbicides.
Commelina diffusa Burm. is an invasive weed specie that
has become an aggressive weed in established banana elds
throughout St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The weed was
once encouraged as a ground cover to reduce soil erosion
(Edmunds, 1971) but has since been rated undesirable,
being a host of the reniformis nematode, Rotylenchulus
reniformis (Robinson et al., 1997), the banana lesion
nematode, Pratylenchus goodeyi, the burrowing nematode,
Radopholus similis (Queneherve et al., 2006) and the soil
borne fungus, Fusarium oxysporum (Waite and Dunlap,
1953) which causes Fusarium wilt. These nematodes all
contribute to signicant reduction in banana production,
particularly Radopholus similis which may reduce yields by
more than 50% and decrease the productive life of banana
elds (Queneherve et al., 2006).

0261-2194/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2006.10.019
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1220 W.A.P. Isaac et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 12191225
Commelina diffusa has gained noxious weed status for
other reasons too. Banana growers in the Windward
Islands, since the early 1970s have relied primarily upon
herbicides as 2,4-D, paraquat and glyphosate (Feakin,
1971; Hammerton, 1981). Heavy reliance and continuous
use of these synthetic herbicides have resulted in a number
of problems, including the development of herbicide
resistant biotypes of C. diffusa. Since the introduction of
Fairtrade, over 5 years ago, with its prohibition on the use
of herbicides, farmers have controlled weeds manually,
using the cutlass or using the weed whacker. Use of the
cutlass and weed whacker has intensied the problem of C.
diffusa by exacerbating the spread of its propagules
(Richard Brathwaite, Pers. Comm. December, 2003). These
Islands are characterized by hilly topography and a climate
with ideal moisture conditions for the proliferation of C.
diffusa. Because many of the banana plantations have been
farmed for several years with virtually no crop rotations or
tillage practices further stabilization of C. diffusa popula-
tions has occurred.
C. diffusa is a perennial, shade tolerant monocotyledo-
nous creeper propagated mainly by seeds or asexually by
stem sections that readily root at the nodes and produce
autonomous, erect shoots (Fournet and Hammerton, 1991;
Myint, 1994; Wilson, 1981). Its vigorous growth habit
allows C. diffusa to form dense, pure stands that can
compete easily with low growing crops smothering them
(Holm et al., 1977). Wilson (1981) reports, in addition, that
the stems of C. diffusa have a high moisture content and
once it is well rooted a plant can survive for long periods
without moisture. This is evident in young banana
plantations in St. Vincent where much of the shoot systems
dries out when exposed to sun during the dry season.
However, at the onset of rains and when the canopy of the
banana closes, the weed re-establishes rapidly from the
running parts of the shoots.
Because of its vigorous growth habit, which allows the C.
diffusa to form dense pure stands, it can smother low
growing crops such as vegetables, pulses and cereals by
smothering them (Holm et al. 1977). C. diffusa is thought
to be very competitive in established banana elds
although little research has been done on such competition
or on its allelopathic potential. Burns (2004) reported that
another invasive species, C. benghalensis L. had higher
growth rates at high nutrient availability and water
availability when compared to a related non-invasive (but
alien) congener, C. bracteosa Hassk. Interestingly, Shcher-
bakova (1974) reported severe stunting in C. diffusa caused
by high nitrogen and Urich et al. (2003) reported altered
growth and physiological characteristics for different C.
erecta L. clones with increased phosphorus supply. Weeds
in general can severely affect the growth of young banana
plantations (Seeyave and Phillips, 1970). This has been
conrmed by work done since the 1960s in the West Indies
with the main effect of weed competition on banana plants
being to delay maturity (Kasasian and Seeyave, 1968;
Simmonds, 1959).
There is a paucity of information on the management of
weeds, including C. diffusa, by other means than herbi-
cides. Banana growers in the Windward Islands urgently
need to nd alternatives to herbicides in order to sustain
their export capacity and remain Fairtrade compliant. The
objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate alternative
strategies for the management of C. diffusa and other weed
species in Fairtrade banana, and (ii) to evaluate the weed
composition response to these selected treatments.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Experimental site and preparation
Field trials were conducted in 2003 and 2004 (rainy and
dry seasons) in established banana elds at four sites in St.
Vincent. They were conducted under irrigated and non-
irrigated regimes on two of the major soil types of St.
Vincent. Site I (non-irrigated/rainy season) was a (Greggs
loam and clay loam (pH 5.8) with a classication of high
level yellow earth which is predisposed to severe erosion,
and had a slope of over 301 (Watson et al., 1958). Site II
(irrigated/rainy season) (pH 5.2), Site III (irrigated/dry
season) (pH 4.42) and Site IV (non-irrigated/dry season)
(pH 5.2) were Soufriere cindery gravely sandy loam (recent
volcanic ash), predisposed to slight erosion and had a slope
of 051 (Watson et al., 1958). Trials I and II were
conducted during the rainy season in 2003 and trials III
and IV during the dry season in 2004. All four sites had
similar cropping histories of being under banana for more
than 5 years and with the mat spacing being 2.2 m  2.2 m.
Prior to the application of the application of treatments,
each site was clean weeded and all the weed stubble
removed. C. diffusa was the dominant weed specie found at
the experimental sites before trials were established.
The average monthly precipitation during the experi-
ment is given in Fig. 1.
2.2. Treatments
The experimental design was a randomized complete
block design with two replicates at each site. Treatments
were arranged under banana plants in 4.5 m  4.5 m plots.
The experiment consisted of (1) two herbicide treatments:
(i) glufosinate-ammonium and (ii) fomesafen which were
applied at early post-emergence (at the weed 35 leaf
stage). These herbicides were applied with a backpack
sprayer which delivered 269-L/ha at kPa pressure using a
fan-nozzle (TJ-8002). (2) Three non-living mulch treat-
ments: (i) banana mulch (traditional practice) applied at a
depth of 56 cm using fully green and senescing leaves, (ii)
coffee hulls applied at a depth of 35 cm and (iii) clear
plastic mulch using high-density, transparent polyethylene
tarp at 0.5 mils (50 gauge) thick for a 6-week period. (3)
Three live mulch treatments: (i) Arachis pintoi (wild
peanuts) planted by seed and stem cuttings drilled into
the soil in rows 16 cm apart with 5 seeds per hole;
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
W.A.P. Isaac et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 12191225 1221

600 total dry mass (DM) recorded. Weed species were identied
from a publication by Fournet and Hammerton (1991) and
conrmation of all weed species was made by the National
500 Herbarium of Trinidad and Tobago.

2.4. Analysis of data

400
Data were subjected to analyses of variance (ANOVA)
Rainfall (mm)

using SPSS (Version 11.0 for windows) with a signicance

300 level of 0.05. Means were separated using least signi-
cance differences (LSD) also at the 0.05 signicance level.
Values for the WCE score were converted to percentages
200
for ANOVA. Analyses were performed on weed counts at
21, 35 and 49 DAT, weed scores at 63 DAT and weed
species biomass at 112 DAT to test the effects of the
treatments.
100

3. Results and discussion

0
A S O N D J F M A M J 3.1. Influence of the weed management treatments on overall
MONTH weed density and weed control efficiency
Rabacca Data Dumbarton Data Long Term Means
All treatments reduced weed density compared to the
Fig. 1. Rainfall/precipitation pattern for the AugustJune experimental UWC up to 49 DAT (Table 1). At 21 DAT, the herbicide
period, 20032004 and the long term means (LTM) from Rabacca (Sites and non-living mulch treatments were as effective at
IIIV) and Dumbarton Field Stations (Site I). suppressing weed growth as the HWC and at 35 and 49
DAT were actually more effective. Of the other treatments,
only the D. heterocarpon live mulch gave such good weed
(ii) Mucuna pruriens (velvet beans) drilled into the soil in control, being similar to the HWC at 35 and 49 DAT
rows 30 cm apart with 3 seeds per hole; (iii) Desmodium
heterocarpon var ovalifolium (CIAT 13651) broadcast at a
rate of 5 kg/ha. (4) Two organic treatments: (i) corn gluten Table 1
Effects of treatments on weed density at 21, 35 and 49 DAT; weed control
meal a pre-emergent weed blocker and a slow release scores at 63 DAT and dry matter production 112 DAT (composite of four
fertilizer (9-1-0), which controls emerging weeds and trials in 2003 and 2004)
provides nutrients to the crop, applied at a rate of 10 kg/
ha and (ii) concentrated vinegar and acetic acid, a post- Treatment No. weeds/x m2 Weed score % DM (g/m2)
emergent contact herbicide, sprayed directly to weeds at 21 DAT 35 DAT 49 DAT 63 DAT 112 DAT
the 35 leaf stage. (5) Two control treatments: (i) hand-
weeded control (HWC) which was hand weeded once every AP 26.0c 39.0d 45.5d 52.1e 83.8f
4 weeks and (ii) an unweeded control (UWC) which was BB 8.5b 24.0c 49.0d 48.1ef 83.2f
BM 0.5a 2.5a 2.5a 95.6a 3.2a
left unweeded from weeks 1 to 16. CH 0.0a 1.5a 2.5a 94.5a 24.7c
CWB 27.0c 50.5e 80.0e 42.6f 102.2g
2.3. Measurements CWC 2.0g 14.0b 20.5c 66.8d 41.4d
DH 13.0b 17.0b 18.0bc 86.7b 59.0e
To determine the suppressive effects of the various FF 0.0a 0.0a 1.0a 77.8c 11.0ab
FGA 0.0a 4.0a 11.5b 73.1cd 44.8d
treatments, weed counts were taken at 21, 35 and 49 days MP 38.0d 62.5f 82.0e 43.3f 81.6f
after the application of treatments (DAT) using xed PM 0.0a 0.0a 0.0a 72.4cd 19.0bc
quadrats (0.50 m2), with one placed randomly in each plot. UWC 47.5e 85.0g 127.0f 27.3g 90.5fg
Weed control efciency (WCE) were taken at 63 DAT SEM 3.6 4.4 5.2 5.3 15.9
using a scale from 1 to 10 where 1 represented poor WCE LSD (0.05) 5.4 5.9 6.5 6.3 11.5
Treat *site ** * NS * *
and 10 represented excellent WCE. Weed species biomass
(g dry mass/m2) was sampled using a 1 m2 quadrat Abbreviations: AP, Arachis pintoi; BB, burnout; BM, banana mulch; CH,
randomly placed in each plot at 112 DAT. These weeds coffee hulls; CWC, clean weed control; CWB, corn weed blocker; DH,
were cut at ground level with hand clippers and dried at Desmodium heterocarpon; FF, Flexstar Fomesafen; FGA, Finale
Glufosinate ammonium; MP, Mucuna pruriens; PM, clear plastic mulch;
60 1C in a forced draught oven for 48 h to a constant mass. UWC, unweeded control; DAA, days after application; DM, dry matter.
Weeds were sorted by taxa (species or genus, depending on *Po0.05; **Po0.01; NS, not signicant. (ag) Means followed by the
their similarity). Uncommon species were pooled and their same letter in the column do not differ signicantly (Po0.05).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1222 W.A.P. Isaac et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 12191225
although not quite as effective as the non-living mulches or
Fomesafen.
Fomesafen and glufosinate-ammonium gave a fast kill of
emerging weeds, including C. diffusa. Fomesafen provided
long lasting and almost complete suppression of weed
growth for 49 DAT and its WCE at 63 DAT was
moderately good at 78%. However, this herbicide was
also phytotoxic to young banana plantlets as well as leaves
of mature plants (430%). A single application gave
effective control of C. diffusa up to 112 DAT. For the
other herbicide, glufosinate-ammonium, weed density had
increased somewhat by 49 DAT, but its WCE at 63 DAT
was similar to that of fomesafen. However, it was effective
in controlling C. diffusa and a repeat application of
glufosinate-ammonium may be necessary for adequate
control of this species.
All three non-living mulches gave excellent suppression
of weed growth for 49 DAT, even better than the HWC by
35 DAT. The WCE of the two dead mulches, banana
mulch and coffee hulls, at 49 DAT was around 95%. It is
probable that the relatively large amount of material
covering the soil surface was sufcient to suppress weed
seed germination and seedling growth. However, it is
possible that exudates released from the decaying plant
material also play a role. It is possible that WCE of the
decomposing coffee hulls is not only due to the amount of
material applied on the soil surface but also to exudates
released from the decaying material. Relating this to the
caffeine found in coffee, Rizvi et al. (1980) described
caffeine as a natural herbicide selectively inhibiting
germinating seed of Amaranthus spinosus L. After the
clear plastic mulch was removed at 42 DAT the stressed
and etiolated weeds, which had germinated under the
plastic recovered, causing an increase in weed density.
However, the suppressive effects of this mulch still were
seed at 63 DAT, with a WCE of 72%. Marenco and
Lustosa (2000) reported an increase in seed germination of
C. benghalensis L. when clear plastic was removed in a trial
using clear plastic mulch for soil solarization in Brazil. To
maintain the 56 cm thickness of the banana mulch, leaves
had to be frequently replaced. The practicality of this is a
concern on a commercial scale, as there are unlikely to be
sufcient leaves available, as discussed by Cintra and
Borges (1988) in studies conducted in Brazil. The
availability of sufcient quantities of coffee hulls would
be a similar concern.
Of the three cover crop treatments, D. heterocarpon
suppressed the highest number of weeds at all 3 dates after
application. This was due to the fact that D. heterocarpon
gave better coverage and was therefore more competitive
than A. pintoi and M. pruriens. The rapid establishment of
D. heterocarpon quickly suppressed emerging weeds which
was contrary to ndings by Bradshaw and Lanini (1995)
who noted that this cover crop required more than 2
months for establishment and control of weeds in
Nicaraguan coffee. A. pintoi fell prey to predatory Rattus
norvegicus (rats) and Gallus domesticus (domestic chickens)
hampering proper establishment of the cover crop. Weed
density in this treatment was high for most of the
monitoring period; it was not until 12 weeks that any
signicant weed suppression occurred. M. pruriens vigor-
ously established itself, weed density was also high for this
treatment as most of its growth was in climbing the banana
plant as reported by Buckles et al. (1998). The vines had to
be removed often from bananas and their effectiveness in
suppressing weeds was low. Additionally, the vines began
senescing after producing pods allowing further weed
establishment. Buckles et al. (1998) noted that for effective
weed control with M. pruriens elds should be planted over
a 3-year period as exudates from senescing leaves have a
herbicidal effect.
The two organic treatments which included the vinegar
and acetic acid and corn gluten meal were not as effec-
tive as other treatments in suppressing weed populations.
Weed density under the corn gluten meal treatment
increased from 53% to 62% from 35 to 49 DAT,
respectively, which was similar to the increase in the
UWC from 55% to 66% in the unweeded control at the
same DAT. Concentrated vinegar and acetic acid caused
very rapid browning and drying of plant foliage within a
24 h period with almost complete drying in 1 week. By
about 14 DAT plants began to recover from this initial
injury as evidenced by an increasing amount of green
tissues in plants. Burning was more pronounced on
broadleaved weeds, than C. diffusa and grasses and the
latter quickly recovered and grew vigorously. Concentrated
vinegar and acetic acid have been reported to burndown
top growth only and not affect root growth such that
perennials may regenerate after a single application and
require additional treatment (Preston Sullivan, Appropri-
ate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA),
September, 2003 unpublished data). This product is
considered a contact herbicide, since its active ingredient
is not translocated within the plant and its primary site of
injury is surface contact with green plant tissue. Repeat
applications and thorough plant coverage would be
necessary for effective management of perennial weeds
using concentrated vinegar and acetic acid. Control using
corn gluten meal was also short term, causing death to
germinating broadleaved weeds only and being a slow-
release fertilizer it presumably supplied nitrogen to grassy
weeds. However, in at least two locations, this poor weed
control was confounded by removal of corn gluten meal by
the feeding activities of rats and domestic chickens. Both
concentrated vinegar and acetic acid and corn gluten meal
cannot be recommended for effective control of C. diffusa
and other weeds in banana elds.
Weed control scores at 63 DAT also showed similar
trends to the weed density at 49 DAT (Table 1 and Fig. 2).
The two dead mulches (banana mulch, 96%, and coffee
hulls, 95%) showed excellent weed control. WCE was also
high (from 87% to 72%) in D. heterocarpon, followed by
fomesafen, glufosinate-ammonium and clear plastic mulch
(from 87% to 72%). The hand-weeded treatment at 67%

100
80
Mean Weed Score %
60
40
20
0
AP BM CWB DH
BB CH CWC
Treatments
Fig. 2. Effect of treatments on mean weed score% (weed control
efciency) at 63 DAT.
was similar to the latter two treatments. A. pintoi,
concentrated vinegar and acetic acid, M. pruriens and corn
gluten meal were less efcient (5243%) in controlling
weeds, but still better than the UWC at 27%.
3.2. Weed dry matter production of C. diffusa as influenced
by the treatments at 112 DAT
At 112 DAT there were also large and signicant
differences between treatments (Table 1) in weed DM.
Lowest levels were found in banana mulch (3.2 g/m2)
followed by fomesafen (11 g/m2), clear plastic mulch
(19.0 g/m2) and coffee hulls (24.7 g/m2). These values were
slightly lower than that for the HWC. Glufosinate-
ammonium produced similar levels, while the other
treatments gave slightly higher DM levels than the HWC.
Highest levels were found in corn gluten meal (102.2 g/m2)
which was similar to that of the UWC (90.5 g/m2). Weed
DM was also high (and similar to the UWC) in A. pintoi
(83.8 g/m2) followed by concentrated vinegar and acetic
acid (83.2 g/m2) and M. pruriens (81.6 g/m2).
The abundance of C. diffusa in treatments was sig-
nicantly different with none found in coffee hull and
banana mulch treatments at 112 DAT (Fig. 3). However,
C. diffusa was signicantly suppressed by broadleaved
and grass weeds in all treatments. Broadleaved weed levels
were more abundant than grass weed levels in all
treatments (Fig. 3). Lowest DM of broadleaved weeds
were found in banana mulch followed by fomesafen, coffee
hulls and clear plastic mulch and highest levels in the
UWC, M. pruriens, corn gluten meal, A. pintoi, concen-
trated vinegar and acetic acid and D. heterocarpon. Grasses
were highest under corn gluten meal and concentrated
vinegar and acetic acid, both signicantly different to
the UWC.
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W.A.P. Isaac et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 12191225 1223
80
60
Weed DM g/m2
40
20
FGA PM
FF MP UWC 0
AP BM CWB DH GA PM
BB CH CWC FF MP UWC
Treatments
Watergrass Broadleaves Grasses
Fig. 3. Effect of various treatments on the mean weed dry matter (DM) g/
m2 for watergrass, all broadleaved and grass weeds.
3.3. Response of weed flora composition to the weed
management treatments
The removal of C. diffusa before treatment application
led to an increase in the weed ora composition. A total of
28 families were represented among the weeds occurring at
the four sites with Poaceae, Asteraceae and Cyperaceae
being most common (Table 2). Fifty species in 46 genera
were identied and 74% of these were species with annual
life histories. Only 26% of the species were perennials. At
both sites C. diffusa (Commelinaceae) had been the
predominant weed before the sites were clean weeded.
Of the 50 weed species found in these trials, 28 were found
at Site I, 25 at Site II, 25 at Site III, 22 at Site IV with just
seven common to all four sites. The common weeds were, six
broadleaved weeds, Pycreus polystachys (Rottb) Beauv.,
Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb., Oxalis barrelieri L., Peperomia
pellucida (L.) Kunth., Spermacoce latifolia Aubl., Laportea
aestuans (L.) Chew and C. diffusa (Table 2).
The weed species composition shifted signicantly from
C. diffusa to a number of annual weed species after the
application of any of the treatments. At Site I S. latifolia
was the most abundant weed species found in treatment
plots followed by Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume. Other
weeds found at lower levels included Drymaria cordata (L.)
Willd. ex. Schult, Panichum trichoides Sw., L. aestuans and
Nautilocalyx melittifolius (L.) Wiehler. Cleome rutidosper-
ma DC. and Cleome acuelata L. were most abundant at
treatment plots in Site II. Cyperus spp. were found in
higher levels in the UWC, M. pruriens, A. pintoi and
concentrated vinegar and acetic acid. Eleusine indica (L.)
Gaertn. was prevalent at Site III with high levels in corn
gluten meal and concentrated vinegar and acetic acid
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1224 W.A.P. Isaac et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 12191225

Table 2
Weeds recorded at the trial Sites IIV in Fairtrade banana elds in St. Vincent over the 2003/2004 growing season

Species Family Common name Life history Site

Amaranthus dubius Mart. Amaranthaceae Bhaji a III and IV

Cyathula prostrate (L.) Blume Amaranthaceae Cyathula a I
Catharanthus roseus G. Don Apocynaceae Periwinkle a III
Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Billy Goat Weed a I
Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae Railway Daisy a I, II and IV
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. Asteraceae Consumption Weed a I, II and III
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae a IV
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Asteraceae Inammation Bush a I and II
Cleome aculeata L. Capparidacea Consumption bush a II
Cleome rutidosperma DC. Capparidacea Spider Plant a II
Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex. Schult Caryophyllaceae West Indian Chickweed a I and II
Ipomoea quamoclit L. Convolvulaceae Sweet William a II, III and IV
Merremia aegyptia (L.) Urb. Convolvulaceae a I
Commelina diffusa Burm. Commelinaceae Watergrass p I, II, III and IV
Mormordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae Wild carilla a I, II and IV
Cyperus cyperoides (L.) Kuntze. Cyperaceae p III
Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperaceae Nut Grass p I, II and III
Cyperus kyllingia Endl. Cyperaceae Spike hedge p I, II and IV
Cyperus luzulae (L.) Retz. Cyperaceae Razor grass p III
Pycreus polystachys (Rottb.) Beav. Cyperaceae p I, II, III and IV
Croton lobatus L. Euphorbiaceae Croton a II, III and IV
Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb. Euphorbiaceae Seed under leaf a I, II, III and IV
Centrosema pubescens Benth. Fabaceae p II and IV
Desmodium incanum DC Fabaceae Spanish Clover p I
Indigofera hirsuta L. Fabaceae Hairy indigo a III and IV
Nautilocalyx melittifolius (L.) Wiehler Gerneriaceae St. Vincent p I
Marsypianthes chamaedrys (Vahl.) O. Kuntze Labiatae a I and III
Spigelia anthelmia L. Loganiaceae Worm Bush a II
Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae Broom Weed a I
Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae Timari a III and IV
Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Hog Feed a II
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.). Raven Oenotheraceae Wild Clove p I
Oxalis barrelieri L. Oxalidaceae a I, II, III and IV
Microtea debilis Sw. Phytoaccaceae Demoiselle a III and IV
Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth. Piperaceae Shinning bush a I, II, III and IV
Piper dilatatum L. C. Rich. Piperaceae Elder Bush p I
Cenchrus echinatus L. Poaceae Burgrass a III and IV
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae Fowl Foot Grass a II and III
Chloris barbata Link Poaceae Purple top a III
Dactylotenium aegyptum (L.) Beauv. Poaceae Beach wiregrass a III
Panichum trichoides Sw. Poaceae Tickle Grass a I and II
Paspalum conjugatum Berg. Poaceae Sourgrass a III
Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link Pteridaceae Fern p I
Portulaca oleraceae L. Portulacaceae Purslane a I and II
Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. Rubiaceae Mille-graines a II, III and IV
Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. Rubiaceae Button Weed a I, II, III and IV
Lindernia diffusa (L.) Wettst. Scrophulariaceae Spreading false pimpernel a IV
Thelpteris dantata (Forssk.) Thelypteridaceae Downy Maiden p I
Laportea aestuans (L.) Chew Urticaceae Sting-a-nettle a I, II, III and IV
Phenax sonneratii (Poir.) Wedd. Urticaceae a I and IV
Total number of species 50
Total number of genera 46 Total number of a 37
Total number of families 28 Total number of p 13
Total species at site I 28
Total species at site II 25
Total species at site III 25
Total species at site IV 22
Total species common to all sites 7

Life histories shown as annual (a) and perennial (p).

 ARTICLE IN PRESS
W.A.P. Isaac et al. / Crop Protection 26 (2007) 12191225
treatments. At Site IV Croton lobatus L. was the most
abundant weed found in almost all treatments.
The re-establishment of C. diffusa was suppressed in all
treatments, including the HWC. The results indicate that
prior to the experiment, interspecic competition by the
dominant C. diffusa species had been an important
determinant of the weed species composition under
banana, as found by Brose and Tielborger (2005).
Previously, the perennial and aggressive nature of C.
diffusa had suppressed other weed species and dominated
the weed population. The success of its removal in addition
to the application of treatments allowed a shift in the weed
species composition to annual weeds at 112 DAT. The
plants of C. diffusa found at 112 DAT were primarily from
the few stem cuttings that remained after sites were clean
weeded prior to treatment application.
The non-living mulches, banana mulch and coffee hulls,
as well as the clear plastic mulch, were the best weed
management alternatives as they gave the highest levels of
control. Results indicate that sustainable pesticide free
production (PFP) can be achieved by using mulches. Of the
live mulches, D. heterocarpon had reasonably good WCE,
whereas M. pruriens and A. pintoi showed little potential
for weed management. There is need for further research to
rene mulch based weed management systems in banana
for the effective management of C. diffusa and other
troublesome weeds. A study on the cost of production
using dead mulches and cover crops is necessary to assess
the sustainable benets to Fairtrade banana growers in the
Windward Islands as well as an economic analysis of the
threshold levels of C. diffusa in banana orchards.
Acknowledgment
The authors thank the Association of Caribbean Farm-
ers (WINFA)/Fairtrade Unit, The Agricultural Diversi-
cation Programme Implementation Unit (ADPIU) and the
cooperating farmers of St. Vincent and the Grenadines and
the School of Graduate Studies and Research, The
University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad for
funding of this research.
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