Mineral Processing-ZIMASCO Chimedza

INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL PROCESSING (ZIMASCO)
MODULE: INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL PROCESSING - ZIMASCO
COURSE OVERVIEW
This course is to cover the basic mineral processing operations involved at the plant,
the theory behind the operations as well as giving a reasonable overview of the
metallurgical performance evaluation of the plant
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the module the student will be expected to: -
Have understood the basic mineral processing unit processes involved in chrome
processing.
Be able to handle basic metallurgical calculations as well as measure the

efficiency of the process.
Be able to write reports and be able to interpret metallurgical results.
Be able to take inventory of plant performance.
Be able to do trouble shooting in the mineral processing circuit.
Course Duration: 20 Hours

Prepared by G. SAKUHUNI
BSc. METALLURGY, 1
MENG. MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 1- COMMINUTION
Objectives:
At the end of the chapter the trainees must be able to:
i) Describe the properties of Minerals
ii) Describe the particle size reduction in crushers and grinding mills
iii) Describe and explain the crushing mechanism of different crushers and
grinding mills and their efficiency.
iv) Compare the wet and dry grinding methods
v) Explain the energy requirements
vi) Use flow sheet in the representation of circuits
BSc. METALLURGY, 2
Introduction
Minerals - are non-organic, natural occurring substances, which are crystalline in
nature and have a definite chemical composition.
Deposit - a concentration of mineral of value
Ore - is deposit that contains minerals in sufficient amounts for economic extraction.
Types of Minerals
Native Minerals - those found in their elemental state e.g. gold, P.G.M.S, Ag, Cu and
Mercury.
Sulphide Minerals - e.g. Galena PbS, Sphalerite ZnS
Oxides - Cassiterite, SnO2

Carbonates
1.1 Properties of Minerals
Hardness
Friability
Toughness
BSc. METALLURGY, 3
1.2 Scope of Mineral Processing

What Mineral processing is all about, a case study ZIMASCO
As Mined or Run of Mine ore consists of valuable metallic minerals and waste
(gangue). Mineral processing involves regulating the size of ore, that is, it is a
process of physically separating the gains of valuable minerals from the gangue to
produce an enriched portion, or concentrate.
Concentrate is that portion which possesses most of the valuable minerals.
Tailing is that portion which contains predominantly the gangue.
The concentration or enrichment process considerably reduces the volume of material,

which must be handled by the extractive metallurgist, so reducing to economic
quantities, the amount of energy and reagents required to produce the pure metal.
There are 2 fundamental operations in mineral processing, that is:
i) Liberation release of value from waste.

ii) Separation concentration
Liberation is accomplished by comminution, which is i) crushing and

ii) grinding.
Mineral Processing concentration is a process concerned with physical methods of

separation which involves;
Separation depending on optical or radioactive properties commonly known as
sorting.
Separation depending on difference in Specific Gravity, which we will dwell on in
this course.
BSc. METALLURGY, 4
Separation utilising differences in surface properties mainly froth flotation.

Separation dependant on magnetic properties.
Separation dependant on electrical conductivity properties.
1.3 Flowsheets
These show diagrammatically the sequence of operations in a plant.
1.3.1 Block Flowsheet

RO M O RE
C o m m in u tio n
S e p a ra tio n
P ro d u c t H a n d lin g
1.3.2 Line Flowsheet

ORE
CRUSHER
RR
SCREEN
GRINDING
CLASSIFICATION
PRODUCT SEPARATION GANGUE
1.4 Liberation
One of the major objectives of comminution is the liberation, or release of the
valuable minerals from the associated gangue minerals at the coarsest possible
particle size.
In practice complete liberation is seldom achieved, even if the ore is ground to the
grain size of the desired mineral particles.
Middling particles of locked mineral and gangue.
BSc. METALLURGY, 5
Degree of liberation refers to the percentage of the mineral occurring as the particles
in the ore in relation to the total content.
Middling fraction needs to be reground to completely liberate the value.
Feed
P rim a ry G rin d
P re c o n c e n tra tio n
M id d lin g s T a ilin g s
R e g rin d
S e p a ra tio n
C o n c e n tra te M id d lin g s T a ilin g s
1.5 Recovery Grade Relationship
Enrichment ratio = c/f (grades)
Ratio of Concentration = F/C (tonnes)
Explain the terms based on the plant and performance measurement at ZIMASCO.
RECOVERY
%
Grade of concentrate
BSc. METALLURGY, 6
Peak Mine Flowsheet (ZIMASCO)
QUESTION: Analyse the flow sheet?
1.6 Comminution and Theories

Comminution theory is concerned with the relationship between energy input and the
product size made from a given feed size.
Several theories have been proposed to relate energy to size reduction; the greatest
challenge is that the machine itself absorbs most of the energy input and only a small
fraction of the total available energy actually does the size reduction.
BSc. METALLURGY, 7
It has been shown that less than 1% of the total energy input to a ball mill is available
for size reduction.
1.6.1 Rittingers Law

Energy consumed in size reduction is proportional to the area of new surface
produced and since surface area is inversely proportional to the diameter.
E = K {1/D2 1/D1}
D2 diameter of product particles

D1 diameter of feed particles
1.6.2 Kicks Law

Work required for size reduction is proportional to the reduction in the volume of
particles concerned.
E = R/Log 2
Where R = f/p
Where f = diameter of feed particles
p = diameter of product particles
1.6.3 Bonds Law

Energy required is proportional to the new grade tip length produced in the particle
breakage and equals work represented by product minus that represented by feed.
W = 10 Wi - 10 Wi
P F
Where = F is the diameter in m of feed particles which 80% of feed pass.

P is the diameter in (m) in product at which 80% pass.
W work in kilowatt hr per short ton.
Wi bond work index.
Work index is the parameter that expresses the resistance of material to crushing.
1.6.4 Hukkis Law

dE = dx n = 1, 1.5, 2
xn
Hukki shows that the relationship between energy and particle size is a composite of
the three laws, i.e. Kicks law is accurate in crushing range above 1cm diameter
Bonds theory applies reasonably in conventional Ball and Rod Mill ranges.
Rittingers theory applies for fine grinding for ranges of 10 1000 m
1.6.5 Grindability
Ore grindability refers to the ease with which materials can be comminuted.
The most widely used parameter to measure grindability is the bondwork index (Wi)
BSc. METALLURGY, 8
There is however variation in breakage characteristics of a material with particle size

and (Wi) has to be obtained for specific grind size to evaluate performance of
comminution operations.
1.7 Crushing and Crushers

Crushing is the first mechanical stage in the process of comminution and the main
objective is to liberate the value from the gangue.
Generally it is a dry operation and is usually done in 2 or 3 stages.
1.7.1 Primary Crushing

Initial stage in crushing, Can reduce or as large as 1.5m to 10 - 20cm in heavy-duty
machines. Normally jam crusher used as Primary crusher. Primary crushers are
designed to operate 75% of the available time, mainly because of interruptions caused
by insufficient crusher feed and by mechanical design in the crusher.
1.7.2 Secondary Crushing

Includes all operations for the reclaiming of the primary crusher product from ore
storage to the disposal of the final crusher product, which is usually between 0.5cm
and 2cm in diameter.
Secondary crushing plants generally consist of one or two size reduction stages with
appropriate crushers and screens. If ore is slippery and tough, the tertiary crushing
stage is substituted by coarse grinding in a Rod Mill or semi autogenous mill.
Basic Flowsheet
[Candidates are expected to come up with the crushing circuit for the plant]
1.7.3 Types of Crushing Circuits
(a) Open circuit
FEED
PRIMARY SECONDARY
CRUSHER CRUSHER
SCREEN
Product
BSc. METALLURGY, 9
(b) Closed Circuit

Feed
Primary
Crusher Secondary Crusher
Screen +Ve
-Ve
Advantages of closed circuit crushing over open circuit:
Increased flexibility
Increase capacity/through put
Alloys compensation for wear which takes place on lines.
Ability to deal with sticky ores.
1.7.4 Primary Crushers

These are heavy-duty machines, used to reduce the ROM ore down to a suitable size
for transport and for feeding the secondary crushers. Always operated in open circuit
with heavy duty scalping screens (grizzles).
2 types of crushers can be used:

jaw crushers and
gyratory crushers
1.7.4.1 Jaw Crushers

Distinct feature is the 2 plates which open and shut like animal jaws. Jaws are set at
an acute angle to each other and one jaw pivoted so as to swing relative to the other
fixed jaw.
The types of jaw crushers
Blake Dodge Universal
Details of crushers can be obtained from B.A. Wills.
BSc. METALLURGY, 10
1.7.4.2 Gyratory Crushers

Can either be used as primary crushers or secondary crushers; by virtue of the nurture
of its feed end.
feed
Crushing
head
Gyratory
motion
1.7.4.3 Cone Crushers

Feed
Crushing
head
Normally used as secondary or tertiary crushers.
BSc. METALLURGY, 11
1.7.4.4 Crushing Rolls

Feed
The crushing using rolls is one of single pressure unlike in the gyratory and jaw
crushers. Varieties of roll crushers include those with one rotating cylinder that
revolves towards a fixed plate, others vary in the number of cylinders e.g. 3,4 or 6
cylinders. Whilst in others the diameters and speeds of the cylinders may differ.
Disadvantages
For high reduction ratios to be achieved very large rolls are required in
relation to feed particle size.
Mainly used for crushing soft material.
1.7.4.5 Hammer Mills

Comminution is by impact rather than compression, by sharp blows applied at high
speeds to few falling rock. The internal stress created in the particles as they are hit
by the hammers that are large enough to cause them to shatter.
1.8 Grinding Mills

Grinding is last stage in the Comminution Process.
Size reduction is by i) Impact
ii) Abrasion
Tumbling Mills - rotating Cylindrical Steel vessels contain a charge of loose crushing
bodies (Grinding Medium).
1.8.1 Types of Grinding Medium

Steel rods
Steel balls
Steel tubes
Hard rock
1.8.2 Size Reduction

Feed Particle size - between 5 and 250mm.
Product Particle size - between 10 and 300m
All ores have an economic limit of grind depending on: -

i) Extent of dispassion of value in the gangue and the
ii) Subsequent separation process to be used.
BSc. METALLURGY, 12
1.8.3 Purpose of Grinding Section

To exercise close control of product size. Thus correct grinding is the key to good
mineral processing.
Under-grinding - result in too coarse a product with a degree of liberation low for
economic separation yielding low recovery.
Over-grinding - needless reduces the particle size of liberated major constituent and
reduce the particle size of the value below size required for most efficient separation.
With the understanding that grinding is the most energy intensive Operation in
Mineral Processing. Thus over-grinding results in great wastages of energy.
1.8.4 Mechanism of Grinding

Three main mechanisms i.e.
(a) Impact (b) Chipping (c) Abrasion
1.8.5 Factors affecting Grinding

Grinding within tumbling mill is influenced by: -
Size of particles (ore particles and grinding medium).
Quantity of charge - pulp density and quantity of grinding medium.
Type of motion i.e. speed of rotation.
Spaces between the individual pieces of the grinding medium.
Grinding is a random process unlike crushing and it is subject to laws of probability.

The degree of grinding of an ore particle depends on the probability of it entering a
zone between the medium shapes and probability of some occurrence-taking place.
Grinding can be carried out as a wet or dry operation. Mill charge consist of water,
ore, grinding medium. It is mixed as the mill rotates. The speed of rotation of the
mill is critical in control of control of grinding operations.
BSc. METALLURGY, 13
1.8.6 Motion of Change in a Tumbling Mill

Distinct feature of tumbling mills is the use of loose crushing bodies, which are:
Large
Hard
Heavy in relation to the particles.
D ead Zone C a ta r a c tin g M e d iu m
E m p ty Z o n e
R o ta t io n
A b ra s io n
Z one
C a s c a d in g Im p a c t Z o n e
Toe
M e d iu m
At low speeds, the medium tends to roll down to the toe of the mill and essentially
abrasive comminution occurs. This cascading leads to finer grinding with increased
fines and increased liner wear.
Cataracting Motion - at higher speeds the charge describes a series of parabolas

before landing on the toe of the charge. This type of motion leads to, comminution by
the impact and a coarser end product and reduced liner wear.
Centrifugal Motion - above the critical speed of the mill the charge is carried right
around the shell without falling in an essentially fixed position. This leads to
increased liner wear and comminution by attrition.
BSc. METALLURGY, 14
CHAPTER 2
SIZING
Objectives:
Describe screening and classification

Explain problems associated with screens in crushing
Describe the intergration of screens in crushing circuit
Describe laboratory screens
Describe the hydrocyclone
Evaluate screening and classification efficiency
2.1 Screening & Classification

Distinction is by the size fractions.
Screening done in conjunction with crushing whilst
Classification is done in conjunction with grinding.
2.2 Industrial Screening

Limited to material above 250mm. Finer sizing normally done by classification.
Purpose of Screening
Prevent the entry of undersize into crushing machines, thus increasing their
capacity and efficiency.
Prevent oversize material from passing to the next stage in closed circuit fine
crushing and grinding operations.
Prepare a closely sized feed to certain gravity concentration processes.
Produce a closely sized product, this is important in quarrying, where final
product size is an important part of the specification.
2.2.1 Screen Performance

The efficiency of screening is determined by the degree of perfection of separation of
the material into size fractions above or below the governing dimensions of the
aperture.
Criteria Used:
Recovery of material at a given size.
Mass of misplaced material in each product i.e. undersize in the over screen
product or oversize in the through screen product or a combination of the two.
BSc. METALLURGY, 15
2.2.2 Mass Balance Across a Screen
Feed to the screen is F t/hr

Overflow from screen C t/hr
Rate of under flow U t/h
f fraction of material in feed above cut size
c fraction above cut off size in overflow
u fraction above cut off size underflow.
Mass Balance of Screen

F=C+U
Balance of Mass of oversize Mats is

Ff = Cc + Uu
Mass balance of undersized mats

F(1-f) = C(1-c) + U(1-u)
Hence: C = f - u
F cu
Recovery of oversized material into overflow

Recovery = Cc = c (f u)
Ff f (c u)
Recovery of undersize material in screen underflow

Recovery = U (1 u) = (1 u) (c f)
F (1 f) (1 f) (c u)
Overall Efficiency of Screen is obtained by multiplying the 2 recoveries.

E = c(f u) (1 u) (c f)
f(c u)2(1 f)
If there are no broken apertures the amount of oversize in underflow is very small and
can be assumed zero thus efficiency reduces to:
E =cf
c(1 f)
The problem of near size material presents the greatest challenge in screening.
BSc. METALLURGY, 16
2.2.3 Partition Curve

It is an efficiency curve drawn by plotting the partition coefficient against the
geometric mean size on a log scale.
Partition coefficient the percentage of the feed reporting to the oversize product.
Separation size cut point is obtained at 50% probability i.e. the size at which a
particle has equal chances to report to the oversize as to the undersize.
This does not correspond with the size of screen apertures. Efficiency of separation is
assessed from the steepness of the curve. The efficiency curve effectively models the
screen and can be used for simulation and design purposes.
2.2.4 Factors Affecting Screen Performance

Feed rate
Rate of vibrating of screen
Angle of approach
Particle orientation to screen
Particle shape
Open space ratio of net area of apertures to the whole area
Nature of feed of material i.e. near size particles greatly reduces screen
performance and also blind screens.
Moisture content damp feed is screened poorly.
Presence of clays and sticky materials.
2.2.5 Screen Types

a) Stationary Screens e.g. grizzly normally used for feed preparation to the primary
crusher, particle size screened range between 300 - 20mm capacity 1000t/h
Sieve bed.
b) Moving Screens revolving screen e.g. the trammel screen
c) Shaking Screens these have a reciprocating motion mechanically induced in the
horizontal direction and are mounted with a gentle slope.
d) Reciprocating screens These employ a horizontal gyratory motion to the feed
end of a rectangular screen by means of an unbalanced rotating shaft.
BSc. METALLURGY, 17
e) Vibrating screens the most commonly used type of screen. It handles particles
size ranges between 25cm to 250mm. Mainly used in crushing circuits where they are
used to handle materials ranging from 25cm to 50mm. Can be operated singly or as a
deck of screens.
2.3 Laboratory Screening

These are used to evaluate the performance of plant screens and grinding efficiency.
In each of the standard series of lab screens the apertures of consecutive sieves bear a
constant relationship to each other.
Ratio of Apertures;
Adjacent sieve is the square root of 2 i.e. 2, advantage is that the aperture
areas double at each sieve, facilitating graphical representation of results.
Modern sieves are based on a 42
Or on metric scale a 1010. This makes possible much closer sizing of the
particles.
2.3.1 Particle Size and Shape

Particles encountered in mineral processing are not regular in shape. Therefore to
determine the particle size, the Equivalent diameter is used.
Equivalent Diameter is the diameter of a sphere that would behave in the same
manner as the particle when submitted to some specific operation.
2.3.2 Methods of Particle Size Analysis
Method Approx useful range mm

Testing sieving 100 000 10
Elutriation 40 5
Microscopy (optical) 50 025
Sedimentary (gravity) 40 1
Sedimentation (centrifugal) 5 0.05
Electron Microscopy 1 0.005
2.3.3 Representation of Results

Sieve test results can be represented as a table or a graph as indicated below:
Results of Typical Sieve Test
1 2 3 4 5 6
Sieve Size Sieve Nominal Cumulative Cumulative
Range m fractions Wt Aperture Size %Undersize % Oversize
Wt (g) % m
+250 0.02 0.1 250 99.9 0.1
-250 + 180 1.32 2.9 180 97.0 3.0
-180 + 125 4.32 9.5 125 87.5 12.5
-125 + 90 9.44 21.2 90 66.3 33.7
-90 + 63 13.10 29.4 63 36.9 63.1
-63 + 45 11.56 26.0 45 10.9 89.1
-45 4.87 10.9
BSc. METALLURGY, 18
a) Explanation of Table
Sieve size ranges used in the test.
The weight of material in each size range e.g. 1.32g of material, passed
through 250m, but was retained on a 180m sieve, the material is thus in the
size range 250m + 180m.
Weight of material in each size range expressed as a percentage of the total
weight.
Normal aperture sizes of the sieves used in the test.
The cumulative percentage of material passing through the sieves e.g. 87.5%
of material is less than 125m in size.
Cumulative percentage of material retained on the sieves.
b) Graphical Representation
A plot of either the cumulative weight percentage undersize or oversize against the
particle size usually on a semi log plots yields a partition curve.
2.4 CLASSIFICATION
Defined as a method of separating mixtures of mineral into two or more products on
the basis of the velocity with which the grains fall through a fluid medium usually
water. It finds its application in sizing of particles considered too fine for sorting by
screening
2.4.1 Principles of Classification

There basically three theories used to explain the mechanism of classification, which
are, terminal velocity, free settling and hindered settling.
a) Terminal Velocity Concept

In freefall a body will fall in a vacuum with a constant acceleration (g) and velocity
will increase indefinitely.
In viscous medium e.g. water or air, there is resistance to movement. Terminal
velocity is the velocity attained when the gravitational force is equal to fluid
resistance. Classifiers consist of essentially of a sorting column in which a fluid is
rising at a uniform rate and particles introduce into the sorting column either sink or
rise according to whether their terminal velocities are greater or less than the upward
velocity of the fluid.
Overflow particles with terminal velocity

Less than V
Fluid
velocity
V
Particle with terminal velocity> V
Spigot product
BSc. METALLURGY, 19
b) Free settling
Sinking of particles in a volume of fluid, which is large with respect to the total
volume of the particles, crowding is negligible. the free settling ration which gives the
size of particles with different densities which will fall at the same velocity.
da/db = ([Db-Df])n
[Da-Df]
Where da,db are spherical diameters of particles with densities Db, Da, falling in a
fluid of sdensity Df, n= 0.5 sor small particles and n=1, for large particles
.
c) Hindered Settling
As the proportion of solids increases in pulp the effect of particle crowding becomes
more apparent and the falling rate of the particles begins to decrease. the system
begins to behave as a heavy liquid whose density is that of the pulp rather than that of
the liquid.
2.4.2. Types of Classifiers

Classifiers are grouped into two classes depending on the flow of current;
horizontal current classifiers e.g. mechanical classifiers.
Vertical current classifiers e.g. hydraulic classifiers also known as hindered settling
classifiers
2.4.3 Hydraulic Classifiers

Consist of a series of sorting columns through each, which a vertical current of water
is rising and particles are settling out.
Feed
fine product
sorting
column
water water
course product medium product
2.4.4 HYDROCYCLONE
A continuously operating classifying device that utilises centrifugal force to accelerate
the settling rate of particles.
Uses:
i) Mineral processing classifier effective at fine separation sizes.
ii) De-sliming
iii) De-gritting
iv) Thickening
v) Washing of fine coal
BSc. METALLURGY, 20
a) Water Recovery and Thickening

Eliminates most of the water in a pulp, and produces de-watered solids. It keeps the
turbidity of the recycled process water at suitable levels. But cyclones do not recover
all the solids as in thickeners; OF may proceed to a separation stage or to flirtation.
b) De-sliming and De-gritting

Removal of small quantities of very fine (slimes) particles before subsequent wet
processing; OR in the course of preparing sized materials to satisfy particular
specifications.
c) Solids Recovery
From turbid effluents, these being typical fine fractions from sand spirals; stop loss of
fine product fractions.
d) Closed Circuiting Grinding

Sizing device to close a grinding circuiting. Variations are made in size, geometry, and
operating conditions of the cyclone in order to modify the classification for the
system.
Advantages
1. Very versatile; e.g. clarification liquids, classification solids, washing solids.
2. Simple, cheap to purchase, easy to install and operate, requiring little
maintenance and support structures.
3. Small compared to the other separated devices; save space, gives low
residence time plus quick response to control measures.
Disadvantages
1. Inflexible once installed and operated. Its due to their high dependence on
flow-rate and feed density; the two are usually difficult to stabilise in plant
start-up and shutdown conditions.
2. There are limitations on their separation performance in terms of sharpness of
cut, size cut range, dewatering or clarification action. Hence multi stage
cyclones with additional capital and cost.
3. They are susceptible to abrasion, although steps can be taken to reduce the
extent and effects
2.4.4.1 Theory of Hydrocyclones

Particles are subjected to two opposing forces-an outward centrifugal force and an
inwardly acting drag.
Forces acting on an orbiting particle in a hychocyclone.
BSc. METALLURGY, 21
R a d i u s o f o r b i ti n g p a r t ic le
C e n tr if u g a l f o r c e D ra g fo rc e
M o t io n o f p a r ti c l e
The centrifugal force developed accelerates the settling rate of the particles;
Thereby separating particles according to size and specific gravity.
Faster settling particles move to the wall of the cyclone, where the velocity is
lowest, and migrate to the apex opening.
Due to the action of the drag force, the slower settling particles move towards
the zone of low pressure along the axis and are carried upward that the vortex
finder to the overflow.
The existence of an outer region of downward flow and an inner region of
upward flow necessitates a position at which there is no vertical velocity.
This applies throughout the greater part of the cyclone body, and an envelope
of zero vertical velocity.
Particles thrown outside the envelope of zero vertical velocity by the greater
centrifugal force exit via the underflow; while particles swept to the centre by the drag
force leaves in the overflow. Particles lying on the envelope of zero velocity are acted
upon by equal centrifugal and drag forces and have an equal chance of reporting
either to the underflow or overflow.
BSc. METALLURGY, 22
2.4.4.2 Regions in a Cyclone
Basically four (4) regions exist in an operating cyclone.
A A A A d ja c e n t to th e c y lin d e r w a ll a n d ro o f o f
c y c lo n e u n -c la s s ifo e d fe e d e x is t.
C
B L a rg e p a rt o f th e c o n e . F u lly c la s s ifie d c o a rs e
m a te ria l re s e m b le s th e c o a rs e u n d e rflo w p ro d u c t.
D D
B B
C Narrow region surrounding the vortex finder and extending below the latter
along the cyclone axis.
Fully classified fine material.
D The only region where classification seems to be occurring. Across the
region, size fractions are radically distributed so that, so that decreasing sizes
show mama at decreasing radial dist from axis.
BSc. METALLURGY, 23
2.4.4.2 Cyclone Efficiency

A performance or partition curve is used to represent the efficiency of the cyclone.
It relates the weight fraction, or % of each particle size in the feed, which reports to
the apex, or underflow to the particle size.
100 Ideal
Real
50
% Feed
appearing in
underflow
d50
size in m
The cut point, or separation size of a cyclone is defined as the point curve for which
50% of particles in the field of that size report to the underflow. That is a 2 say
particles of this size have equal chance to report either to the overflow or underflow.
Referred to as the D50 size. Sharpness of cut depends on slope central section.
Measured by the Imperfection I.
I = d75 d25
2 d50
Corrected d50
It is assumed that in all classifies, solids of all sizes are entrained in the coarse product
liquid by short circuiting in direct proportion to the fraction of H2O in fed in feed
reporting to underflow.
Illustration:
If feed continues 16t/h of material of a certain size and 12t/h reports to underflow,
then the % of this size reporting to underflow and plotted on the normal partition
curve is 75%. If 25% of feed H2O reports to underflow, then 25% of the feed material
will short circuit with it therefore 4t/h of size fraction will short circuit to the
underflow and only 8t/hr leave in the underflow due to classification. Corrected
recovery of the size fraction is this
BSc. METALLURGY, 24
12- 4 x 100 = 67%

16 - 4
100
50
% Feed to
underflow
d50 d50c
Unconnected partition curve can be connected using the equation.
y1 = Y - R
I-R
Where y1 is the connected mass fraction of a particular size fraction reporting to

underflow.
Y actual mass reporting to underflow.

R fraction of the feed liquid recovered in the coarse product stream.
2.4.4.3 Characteristics of Hydrocyclones

Support: vertical or inclined for floor space and easy check.
Feeding: straight feed header, T or Y distributor, radial.
Product discharge with antisyphon and wear protection.
2.4.4.4 Types of Hydrocyclones

a) Narrow Angle Designs:
Included angles go up to 25o.
Suppressed circulating flows.
Efficient for fines separation.
Limited to cases for small cut sizes, as in classification of fines, clarification,
thickening.
b) Wide Angle Design

Included angles go up to 70o.
Higher cut sizes are possible, up to 400 microns, and they are suitable for
classification.
Sharpness of separation cut is improved.
BSc. METALLURGY, 25
Higher circulating flows allow sorting materials according to density and

shape.
2.4.4.5 Design Parameters
a) SIZE OF FEED ORIFICE (FO)

Affects the volume processed by the cone. High FO size allows higher inflows;
reduces retention time in the cone, with rejection of coarse materials to the overflow.
Requires increase in the UF size to take the increased tonnage load.
b) TANGENTIAL VELOCITY
Inlet Velocity is a essential, demonstrated by small cyclone for fine cut points.
Raising the pressure increases the velocity. Also exhibited in the cyclone cluster
designs; a large number of small diameter cyclones operate at high-pressure high
capacity. Feed distribution, spigot clearance and product collection are important in
these multiple units.
c) APEX DIAMETER
UF is dense slurry with min. volume of water to make it flow. Apex should take the
volumetric flow of larger particles, and have the air core. Spigot size determines the
solids concentration and flow of the thickened product from the cyclone.
An increase I the apex size results in the following:
Increase in the UF flow-rate and tonnage of solids.

A decrease in the UF density.
An increase in fines in the UF. Cut-point plus efficiency drops.
If apex is too small, larger particles are forced into the overflow, increasing the cut
point
but reducing the efficiency. Roping. Wear becomes extreme.
d) FEED SOLIDS DENSITY

In closed circuit grinding, the cyclone may be fed with slurry containing 30% solids,
vol. The cutpoint may be increased by multiple of two or three when fed with slurry
containing lesser percentage of solids. The high presence of solids in the feed is
known to impair efficiency.
e) VORTEX FINDER DIAMETER (VFD)

The vortex finder projects into the cyclone body to prevent short circuiting of feed
directly into the overflow. It also controls the volumetric capacity of the cyclone.
VFD can be varied, usually by substitution, to alter the size cut point. This is the
primary means for achieving any desired change. Increase in the VFD results in the
following:
Increase in total flow,

Increase in OF density,
Increase in OF top particle size.
BSc. METALLURGY, 26
f) CYCLONE BODY LENGTH & CONE ANGLE

Increasing the length of the cylindrical body or reducing the cone angle will reduce
the cut-point. Also, it tends to improve the efficiency of the cyclone.
2.4.4.6 Problems Associated with Cycloning
a) By Passing and Short Circuiting

Transportation of a portion of feed slurry directly to the underflow, so that
classification is by-passed for the portion.
b) Elutriation
Elutriation is the process of replacing, to whatever extent, of the void volume in mill
feed slurry with clear water, to avoid over grinding and mill over loading. Due to the
by-passing effect, the underflow product contains a significant amount of fines.
c) Roping
Overloaded apex delivers a dry looking, thick and vertical underflow stream, that
appears like thick rope and has the same diameter as the apex. Oversize material
increasingly reports at the vortex finder. Ideal discharge is 20 to 30o spray with air
core on the axis to allow air to enter the cyclone.
2.4.4.6 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE

For maximum cyclone performance, regular inspection and maintenance is vital and
the following items need to be checked every maintenance day.
Spigot for wear,

Internal for blockages or wear areas,
General condition of exterior,
Inlet feed nozzle dimensions,
Vortex finder dimensions,
Pressure gauge still working?
PROBLEM REASON POSSIBLE SOLUTION

1 Rope discharge Tonnage too high for Add an extra cyclone. Reduce
spigot (apex make-up water. Fit larger
capacity exceeded) spigot.
Check for obstruction in spigot
or feed nozzle.
2 Tramp oversize Roping. Better feed control required.
Feed density too Check for obstruction.
high. Replace worn parts.
BSc. METALLURGY, 27
Inward step.
3 Vibration Suction occurring. Fit breather pipe. Change feed /
Tonnage too high. cyclone parameters.
See (2) above.
Roping Replace vortex finder.
Distorted vortex
finder
4 Densities too high in Insufficient water in Add more make-up water.
overflow feed
5 Densities too low in Incorrect feed Spigot / vortex finder changes.
underflow conditions Consult cyclone designers.
Incorrect cyclone Fit correct spigot size
specifications
6 Low cyclone pressure Insufficient water in Add more make-up water.
feed Reduce number of cyclones.
7 Too high cyclone Cyclone plugged Check cyclone for condition.
pressure Change or add cones.
8 Grinds unattainable Insufficient Change feed / cyclone
classification. parameters.
Inadequate grinding Consult cyclone designers.
capacity.
Incorrect sizing.
9 High wear Feed volume too Change feed / cyclone
high. parameters.
Pressure-drop to Change cyclone parameters.
high. Change material of construction.
Larger cyclones
required.
Poor water
characteristics.
10 Uneven performance Uneven feed Fit proper distributors.
distribution. Check for obstructions.
Obstruction from
debris or torn liner.
11 Change performance Worn parts. Replace worn parts. Inspect for
Obstruction. obstruction.
BSc. METALLURGY, 28
CHAPTER 3:
Gravity Concentration
Objectives
Explain gravity concentration concepts.
Describe Mineral concentration by gravity methods.
BSc. METALLURGY, 29
Introduce Equipment used in gravity concentration.

Explain the jigging process
Explain concentration using spirals
3.1 Introduction
Gravity concentration has been the dominant Mineral Processing Method for
over 2 thousand years and its only in the 20th century where its importance has
declined with the emergence of processes like;
Flotation
Magnetic separation/electrostatic separation
Leaching
However use of gravity separation techniques has not gone to extinction.

Gravity separation works best for;
rich ores
coarse size liberation ores
placer deposits
preconcentration
and is also for scavenging value from waste matter e.g. for ores with a significant
difference in specific gravity from the waste matter associated with it e.g. Gold,
Chrome etc.
3.2 Mineralogical Aspects of Gravity Concentration.

There are a number of factors that affects the gravity separation process which
has to do with the nature and properties of the ore itself and these have to be
predetermined before gravity separation is chosen to be the suitable separation
technique. This is done by mineralogical analysis and this gives data pertaining to:
composition
proportions
grain size
mineral properties
concentration criterion
texture
liberation
3.2.1 Composition
Knowledge of composition of ore will help to predict the likely qualities of
products after concentration. Help in identification of possible contaminants.
3.2.2 Propositions
How much of the value mineral is in samples will help in predicting quantities
and qualities of the product.
3.2.3 Grain Size

This has a greater holding on the liberation of the mineral, fine-grained
minerals are not only difficult to liberate but are also difficult to treat.
NB: Ultra fines is one of the greatest challenges in gravity concentration and it
is where Gravity separation has had its greatest failures.
BSc. METALLURGY, 30
3.2.4 Mineral Properties

Separation of ore mineral from another exploits the differences in the
properties of the minerals that exist.
For gravity concentration the difference in specific gravity (s.g.) is key. The
density difference required to achieve adequate separation depends on the process
equipment.
3.2.5 Concentration Criterion

This is the measure of how amenable the ore is to gravity concentration.
C.C = P heavy P fluid

P light P fluid
3.2.6 Texture
Basically it defines the relationship of the grains of a mineral, or between one
mineral and another. This has a great holding on the liberation of ore and hence its
subsequent separation by gravity.
3.2.7 Liberation
Before minerals can be concentrated by gravity they need to be separated from
each other and that is done during the crushing and grinding stages. The extend and
degree of release determines the degree of concentration of the value mineral by
gravity concentration techniques.
Valuable mineral which is strongly bound into a hard rock ore can, at present,
only be liberated by randomly breaking that ore into small fragments that are much
smaller than the natural grain size of desired mineral which is expensive.
It is key to know the size distribution of the particles produced during a

grinding operation.
3.3 Gravity Concentration Techniques

There are a range of separation techniques used in gravity separation, which
include:
heavy media separation
sluices
shaking tables
centrifugal concentration
spirals
jigging
[This module will concentrate on spirals and jigs as these are the main gravity
concentrators used at the plant.]
3.4 Jigging Process [KUURUTSA]

3.4.1 Introduction to jig theory
Many mechanisms are involved in the operation of the jigs to effect
separation.
Mechanisms
These can be divided into 2 that is:
BSc. METALLURGY, 31
stratification
film concentration
Stratification relate to the movement of particles in a vertical plane and applies
mainly jigging.
Film concentration relate to the movement of particles in an inclined plane. Film
concentration apply mainly to shaking tables and spirals.
Jigging is a method of sorting particles by stratification, based on movement of a

bed of particles relative to a fluid in a vertical plane.
Fluid can be either be air or water (in this case AIR is used in the Batac jig). Thus
the separation into pneumatic and hydraulic jigs.
Cases of jigging
particulate bed moved relative to the fluid
fluid move relative to the particulate bed
3.4.2 Fluid movement relative

This is the most common case. The particulate bed rests on a screen or on top
of an artificial bed- (ragging- on top of the screen). By various methods, fluid caused
to flow cyclically through the bed, dilating it with upward flow and contracting it with
downward flow.
Critical Variables in jigging;

relative magnitude of the cyclic flows
duration of cycles
Typical cycle frequencies would be in the range of 100 to 300 cycles per minute.
3.4.3 Mechanisms which control stratification

There are 4 theories proposed which control stratification and these are;
differential acceleration
hindered settling
attainment of the minimum potential energy level
interstitial trickling
3.5.3.1 Differential Acceleration at the beginning of fall

During the upward stroke of the jigging cycle, the particles dilate and move upwards
until their velocity is eventually reduced to zero.
At that instant they can be considered as starting to fall from rest with initial
accelerations, and hence velocities which are functions of densities of particles and
independent of particle size. Considering the forces acting on a particle falling in a
fluid medium.
ma = (m m1)g FD = m(dv/dt)
where m = particle mass kg
v = particle velocity m/s
t = time s
m1 = mass of fluid displaced kg

g = gravitational acceleration m/s2
FD = drag force
BSc. METALLURGY, 32
Initially drag force of fluid is zero i.e. FD
dv = mm1 g
dt m
And since the particle and displaced fluid are of equal volumes.
dv = [ Ds Df ] g = [ 1 Df ] g
dt Ds Ds
Where Ds and Df are the specific gravities of the solid and fluid respectively.
Thus the initial acceleration of the mineral grains is independent of size and only
depends on the densities of the solid and fluid.
3.4.3.2 Hindered settling

As the proportion of solids in the pulp increases, the effect of particle crowding
becomes more apparent and the falling rate of the particles begins to decrease. The
system begins to behave as a heavy liquid whose density is that of the pulp rather that
that of the carrier liquid; hindered settling conditions now prevail.
Because of the high density and viscosity of the slurry through which a particle must
fall in separation by hindered settling, the resistance to fall is mainly due to the
turbulence ore feed.
The falling rate of the particles is given by;
v = k[d(Ds Dp)]
Where Dp is the pulp density. Hindered settling reduces the effect of size, while
increasing the effect of density. The lower the density of the particles the more
marked is the effect of reduction of the effective density, Ds Dp, and the greater is
the reduction in falling velocity.
Similarly the larger the particles the greater is the reduction in falling rate as the pulp
density increases. Hindered settling ratio is given by da/db.
da = Db Dp
db Da Dp
If density of chrome particles is 7.5 and that of quartz is 2.65 falling in a pulp of
density 1.5.
da = 7.5 1.5 = 5.22

db 2.65 1.5
BSc. METALLURGY, 33
This implies that a particle of chrome will fall in the pulp at the same rate as a particle
of quartz with a diameter 5.22 times as large.
Effect of Hindered settling
3.4.3.3 Minimum potential energy level attainment

A bed of mixed particles in the undisturbed state possesses a potential energy. On
loosening the bed, the mineral particles of different specific gravities strive to take up
positions such as to give the system the minimum potential energy i.e. stratification.
Thus stratification is not linked to the supplied energy by the jig stroke but rather it is
a result of energy reduction.
3.4.3.3 Interstitial/Consolidated Trickling

Since particles of different size or s.g. do not travel the same distance during
any one of the settling periods, they come to rest at different instants. Thus the coarse
particles may remain in suspension for a much shorter period of time than the fine
ones. As a result the coarse particles will bridge together, while the fine ones continue
to settle through the interstices of the larger ones.
3.4.3.4 Summary of Mechanism

Jigging is a complex process and application of the four theories will aid in
appreciation of the process and will assist in:-
selection jig type
determination of operating parameters
iii)control of particle stratification and thus enhance efficiency of separation.
3.4.4 Basic Jig Construction
BSc. METALLURGY, 34
Essentially the jig is an open tank filled with water, with a horizontal jig
screen at the top, and provided with a spigot in the bottom or hutch compartment for
concentrate removal.
The jig bed consist of a layer of coarse, heavy particles, or ragging placed on
the jig screen on to which the slurry is fed.
Feed flows across the ragging and separation takes place in the jig bed. So that
grains with high specific gravity penetrate through the ragging and screen to be drawn
off as concentrate, while the light grains are carried away by the cross flow to be
discarded as tailings.
3.4.4.1 The Jig Cycle

The pulsation of the fluid in a jig can be effected either mechanically, by
means of a reciprocating piston, or by the pulsation either of air or water that is
intermittently admitted via a special valve to the jig.
Reciprocating piston both pulsion and suction result.
Air and water only pulsion.
3.4.4.2 Lateral Movement

The essential requirement in jigging is to produce and maintain a layered bed
comprising basically of;
a top or transporting layer
a roughing layer
a separating layer
BSc. METALLURGY, 35
Flow and solids distribution in a loaded jig bed with a middling fraction.
3.4.4.3 Summary of Jigging Action

The top layer of the bed will normally be penetrated by all particles fed except those
particles small enough to remain in suspension in water, which move with and are
governed by the flow of the water rather than by any action of the bed.
The roughing layer of the bed excludes all grains of lower specific gravity than its
own, within the size of its own grains. It therefore stops all the coarser grains of
gangue from further penetration. All heavier material will pass to the separating layer.
Middling density material, being prevented from passing down ward builds up at the
expense of the low gravity upper layer, which is thereby forced to overflow.
The separating layer of the bed excludes from itself all grains of lower specific gravity
than that of the grains composing the bed, within the size range of the grains
composing the bed.
Grains of equal or greater specific gravity than the bed at any given level will enter it
independent of size, except that flat larger grains may not enter except on edge, and
grains much smaller may be excluded if the mean-rising-current velocity is
significantly greater than that of the downward current.
The finest size of grain that can be maintained in a bed is determined by the apertures
of the jig screen and by the velocities of the water currents in the bed.
3.4.4.4 Types of Jigs

Jigs are classified according to the operating parameters:
Method of Pulsation
movable screen jigs e.g. Hankock jig
fixed screen plunger pulsation e.g. the Harz jig
diaphragm e.g. Wemco jig
air e.g. Baum and Batac jigs
water e.g. Richard jig
3.4.5 The Batac Jig

Its derived from the Baum Jig with modification to suit efficient separation.
Used in coal cleaning but in our case it is used to separate the chrome fractions from
the impurities.
3.4.5.1 Operation of the Baum Jig

These are air pulsated jigs. Air under pressure is forced into a large air
chamber on one side of the jig vessel causing pulsations and suctions to the jig water,
which in turn causes pulsation and suctions through the screen plates upon which the
material is fed thus causing stratification.
BSc. METALLURGY, 36
Various methods are used to continuously separate the refuse from the value
material.
The Batac, unlike the Baum jig has no side air chamber; instead it is designed
with a series of multiple air chambers, usually two to a cell, extending under the jig
for its full width, thus giving uniform air distribution.
The jig uses electronically controlled air valves which provide a sharp cut-off
of the air input and exhaust.
Variation of the inlet and outlet valves allows for variation in pulsation and
suction by which proper stratification of the bed for different material to be achieved.
Batac Jig Fig 10.3 Pg 314 BA WILLS???????????
Plant towering to look at the Batac jig
BSc. METALLURGY, 37
The batac jig is commonly used in the coal industry. But it has found
applications in the recovery of iron and also for the treatment of gold and chrome.
(ZIMASCO).
3.4.5.2 Machine Parameters

The parameters that affect the performance of a jig are divided into design variables
which cannot be changed and are predetermined by the type of jig and the variable
parameters.
The 2 requirements of a jig are

Primary function Stratification which is affected by the jig stroke, made up of
components of cycle pattern, length and frequency.
Secondary function separation of the stratified layers into 2 discrete products.
Machine Parameters of a Typical Jig
Parameter Design Variable

Stroke Cycle Pattern Length and frequency
Jig bed Depth(with limits)
Ragging Depth, S.G. Size
Screen Aperture
Concentrate Method of removal Rate of removal
Spiral Concentrators
3.5.1 Principles of Spiral Concentration
Feed is introduced through the feed box which reduces its velocity and establishes the
correct pattern of flow.
Feed enters the spiral channel as an almost homogenous slurry. Stratification occurs in
a vertical plane as the pulp flows around the helix of the spiral concentrator.
Stratification is as a result of a combination of;
hindered settling
interstitial trickling.
Bagnold force also plays a significant role due to the relatively high rates of shear in
the helical trough.
The result is that in the vertical plane, the heavies proceed to the lower velocity zones
near the trough surface, while the lights tend to stratify above them in the higher
velocity zones.
The helical twist of the spiral concentrator causes;

a flowing film velocity gradient to be set up in a vertical plane
a radial or centrifugal velocity gradient in a horizontal plane.
A cross sectional rotation developed as a result of the centrifugal forces acting upon
the varying stream components. Which shift the heavy (chromite) minerals inward
toward the collecting ports, or outlets and the light faster-flowing but slower settling
minerals, outward away from the ports.
Cross section of a spiral
BSc. METALLURGY, 38
One additional feature of many spirals is the addition of wash water from the inner
radius of the trough in between the discharge ports. This assist in washing light
particles from the surface of the stratified bed at the inner radius, back towards the
outer radius of the trough.
Concentration by spirals in a blend of these forces ie

hindered settling
interstitial trickling
bagnold shear
cross-sectional rotation
This makes the spiral a unique concentrating device.
3.5.2 Application of Spiral Concentrators

Spirals can be employed for the separation of any 2 minerals from each other, as long
as the minerals are essentially liberated, there is a reasonable difference in specific
gravity, or particle shape, and where the heavy minerals are in approximately size
range of 2mm to 30m.
Within these limits spirals can be used for;
production of concentrate and tailing in a single roughing stage.
production of a finished concentrate (cleaning) with a tailing to be treated by another
process.
Scavenging tailings for other process returning the rough concentrate for further
liberation and cleaning.
Spirals are versatile such that they can be used in a closed circuit grinding especially
in the treatment of higher value metal oxides to recover the liberated heavies and
return the unliberated material to regrind.
Applications
Are in the recovery of iron ore, mineral sands, metal oxides and coal preperation and
in chrome concentration. In most cases, the spirals are either two or three stages with
rougher spirals followed by one or two cleaning circuits.
3.5.3 Operation of Spirals

Simple device, easy to use.
BSc. METALLURGY, 39
Very little needs to be done by operator once correct type and number of has been
chosen and installed.
Tasks to be done;
ensure steady feed rate
ensure steady pulp density
Knowledge of the effect of variations in the feed characteristics is key.
Adjustment of splitters is essential to both;

grade control
recovery
The link between grade and recovery
Grade
Recovery
3.6. Performance Appraisal
3.6.1 Grade
Amount of value (chrome) per tonne of material
Usually measured as a percentage (%)
Grade % = Mass of chrome x 100%

Mass of total concentrate
Grade can also be measure in g/t.
3.6.2 Recovery
Recovery is the quantity of value (chrome) recovered compared to that which was in
the original feed material. It is a measure both of how much has been recovered has
been lost.
Recovery = Cc x 100%
Ff
Where = C tonnage of concentrate

c grade of concentrate
F mass/tonnage of feed
f grade of feed.
3.6.3 The Two Product Formula
BSc. METALLURGY, 40
Weight of feed, concentrate, and tailings are F, C, and T respectively and their
corresponding grades are f, c, and t, then considering no accumulation in the
concentrator and no losses.
F=C+T
Material input = material output.
The balance of the valuable metal (chrome) is
Ff = Cc + Tt
Recovery can be expressed in terms of grades by the equation;
Recovery = 100c (f t) %
f(c t)
BSc. METALLURGY, 41

Mineral Processing-ZIMASCO Chimedza

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Mineral Processing-ZIMASCO Chimedza

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INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL PROCESSING (ZIMASCO)

MODULE: INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL PROCESSING - ZIMASCO

At the end of the module the student will be expected to: -

Be able to handle basic metallurgical calculations as well as measure the

Be able to write reports and be able to interpret metallurgical results.

Be able to take inventory of plant performance.

Be able to do trouble shooting in the mineral processing circuit.

Course Duration: 20 Hours

At the end of the chapter the trainees must be able to:

i) Describe the properties of Minerals

iv) Compare the wet and dry grinding methods

v) Explain the energy requirements

vi) Use flow sheet in the representation of circuits

Deposit - a concentration of mineral of value

Sulphide Minerals - e.g. Galena PbS, Sphalerite ZnS

Oxides - Cassiterite, SnO2

1.1 Properties of Minerals

1.2 Scope of Mineral Processing

Concentrate is that portion which possesses most of the valuable minerals.

Tailing is that portion which contains predominantly the gangue.

The concentration or enrichment process considerably reduces the volume of material,

There are 2 fundamental operations in mineral processing, that is:

i) Liberation release of value from waste.

Liberation is accomplished by comminution, which is i) crushing and

Mineral Processing concentration is a process concerned with physical methods of

Separation utilising differences in surface properties mainly froth flotation.

1.3.1 Block Flowsheet

1.3.2 Line Flowsheet

PRODUCT SEPARATION GANGUE

Middling particles of locked mineral and gangue.

Middling fraction needs to be reground to completely liberate the value.

C o n c e n tra te M id d lin g s T a ilin g s

1.5 Recovery Grade Relationship

Enrichment ratio = c/f (grades)

Ratio of Concentration = F/C (tonnes)

Peak Mine Flowsheet (ZIMASCO)

QUESTION: Analyse the flow sheet?

1.6 Comminution and Theories

1.6.1 Rittingers Law

D2 diameter of product particles

1.6.2 Kicks Law

1.6.3 Bonds Law

Where = F is the diameter in m of feed particles which 80% of feed pass.

1.6.4 Hukkis Law

There is however variation in breakage characteristics of a material with particle size

1.7 Crushing and Crushers

1.7.1 Primary Crushing

1.7.2 Secondary Crushing

1.7.3 Types of Crushing Circuits

(a) Open circuit

(b) Closed Circuit

1.7.4 Primary Crushers

2 types of crushers can be used:

1.7.4.1 Jaw Crushers

The types of jaw crushers

Blake Dodge Universal

Details of crushers can be obtained from B.A. Wills.

1.7.4.2 Gyratory Crushers

1.7.4.3 Cone Crushers

Normally used as secondary or tertiary crushers.

1.7.4.4 Crushing Rolls

1.7.4.5 Hammer Mills

1.8 Grinding Mills

1.8.1 Types of Grinding Medium