International Research Journal of Power and Energy Engineering

IRJPEE
Vol. 3(2), pp. 104-111, November, 2017. www.premierpublishers.org, ISSN: 3254-1213x

Conference Paper

Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution

Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques
Rajashekar P. Mandi
Director, School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, REVA University, Bangalore, India
E-mail: dir.eee@reva.edu.in

This paper describes the various options of energy conservation methods to enhance the energy
efficiency of transformers. The energy economics of using low loss core is also studied and given
the results in this paper. The load management of distribution transformers have reduced the
energy losses considerably in industries. In this paper, a detailed computer based evaluation of
energy losses due to off-design operation and size mismatch of transformers, unbalanced
secondary load, low power factor on the secondary are discussed for thermal power stations and
process industries. Automation of transformer management is described as it can lead to
considerable saving in energy. The energy conservation measures for distribution transformers
have reduced the transformer losses by 10 15 % in industries.

Keywords: energy efficiency, all day efficiency, eddy current losses, winding losses, load factor,

INTRODUCTION

The present total installed power generation capacity in
India is 228.72 GW, out of which 44 % of the energy is
being used by industries. The estimated energy loss in
transformers is 520 MW in industrial system (CEA, 2013,
Growth of Electricity Sector in India from 1947 to 2013).
Electrical energy is the most popular form of energy being
used as the main driving force in industrial units and power
stations due to its versatility, easy to use & less pollution
(Energy conservation in India (1983), Energy conservation
bulletin, Tata Energy Documentation and Information
Centre, 1983). The electrical energy for industrial sector
accounts for about 50 % of total energy generated. Indian
industries consume about 25 % more electrical energy for
the same level of production as compared to the advanced
countries due to hesitation in technology up-gradation,
obsolete equipment, higher line losses, inadequate
capacitive power compensation, poor quality of power
supply, etc.
The transformers are the simple electrical equipment that
transfer the power from voltage level to other voltage i.e.,
either step up or step down. This equipment is robust and
sturdy which does not have any moving parts.
Transformers require least maintenance compared to
other electrical equipment. Due to the advancement in
transformer core technology, new low loss transformers
introduced.
The losses in transformers account for 3.6 % of total
auxiliary power in a typical 210 MW plant and are in the
range of 5 % to 16 % in process industries. Thus, due to
acute shortage in power, it is essential to conserve the
energy through minimizing the transformer losses by
design up-gradation, use of low loss material, improved
secondary load power factor, minimizing the voltage and
load unbalance, suppressing the harmonics, use of better
quality of oil, etc. (Rajashekar P. Mandi et al., 2012).

The electrical distribution network in many industries were Transformer losses

extended in an ad hoc manner to provide power supply to
new equipment with a minimum capital cost, resulting in These losses are mainly due to iron losses and winding
increased network losses and poor-quality power supply. losses.
This had overloaded the transformers industries.
Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques
Mandi RP. 105

A. Iron losses These eddy current losses are more for the harmonic
prone areas where the higher order frequencies are
The iron losses account for 1.77 - 3.85% of total input available in the system voltage. The possibility of
energy in an industry. These losses are mainly eddy transformer core failure is more in harmonic prone area.
current and hysteresis losses. The increased iron losses These core losses play a major role in industrial system
are due to idle charging, oversizing, use of inferior core and power stations where the loading on these
material and harmonics in the distribution system, etc. transformers will be less. All these transformers have to be
Table I gives the core losses for different types of cores either idle charged or loaded at partially cause more losses
used in transformers. in core because core losses depend on the applied voltage
and frequency and not directly depend on the load carried
TABLE I. THE CORE LOSSES FOR DIFFERENT through transformers (Rajashekar P. Mandi and
GRADES OF TRANSFORMER CORES. Udaykumar R Yaragatti, 2014).
S/No Type/grade Thickness, Core loss at flux
mm density of 1.7 T, The suggested measures are:
W/kg i. The stand-by transformers may be de-energised on
01 M4 0.27 1.22 primary side.
02 MOH 0.30 1.01 ii. Generally industrial distribution transformers are
03 ZH 100 0.27 0.96 designed based on the all day efficiency of transformer
04 ZDKH 0.23 0.84 and lower loading on these transformers cause more
05 Metal glass alloy
0.025 0.31 core losses.
SA1
iii. The loading on transformer in industries is often in the
range between 10 - 30 % (low load factor). Wherever
It can be seen from the table that the metal glass
more number of transformers are installed and are
(Amorphous) cores will reduce the core loss by about 75
working at low load factors, it is economical to shift all
% and the cost of the metal glass core transformer will be
the load on to a single or multiple transformers without
1.6 to 2 times (Hitachi, Catalogue on Hitachi Amorphous
increasing the transformer load factor to above 65 - 70
Core Transformers, Hitachi Industrial Equipment Systems
%.
Co. Ltd., Singapore). The Iron losses are divided into a)
iv. The suppression of harmonics in the distribution will
hysteresis losses & b) eddy current losses. Hysteresis
reduce the eddy current and hysteresis losses.
losses are those which are inherent to magnetic fields. An
empirical relation for hysteresis losses is given by
B. Winding losses
(Sawhney A.K., 1990):
The winding losses in the transformers are in the range of
Wh k h .B 1.6
max .f W (1) 0.25 - 1.65 % of total energy in an industry. The increased
winding losses are due to poor power factor, load
unbalance, winding temperature and harmonic currents on
where Kh is a constant dependent on the material used, f is the secondary (Say M.G., 1983).
frequency in Hertz and Bmax is maximum flux density in
wb/m2. The poor power factor will reduce the capacity of the
transformer. The improved secondary power factor will
Hysteresis losses mainly depend on applied voltage and reduce the winding losses and enhance the transformer
frequency. If the voltage and frequency is high, the capacity. The unbalanced load on secondary causes the
hysteresis losses will be more. But these losses mainly reduction in transformer capacity. A load unbalance of 50
depend on the type of material used. The present new % will reduce the transformer capacity approximately by
material (Amorphous) available in the market is having less 14.5 %.
hysteresis loss. The increased winding temperature causes the increased
Eddy current losses occur because the magnetic core losses. The winding temperature may increase because of
material itself consists of material that conducts electricity. inadequate cooling provided by oil i.e., sludge formation in
As voltages are induced in the material by alternating the oil, more acidity content of oil, presence of dissolved
magnetic fields, currents called eddy currents are gases in the oil, etc. Fig. 1 shows the local cooling
produced. An approximate expression for these losses is technique used by providing desert coolers in a sub-station
given by: to maintain the transformer winding temperature below its
trip limit. Fig. 2 gives the view of transformer is cooled by
providing the water just below the transformer base. The
Wh ke .Bmax
2
. f 2 .t 2 W (2) current harmonics increase the RMS value of the current,
which will increase the winding losses. These losses can
where Ke is a constant dependent on the material and t is be tapped by suppressing the harmonics with the help of
thickness of material. filters.
Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques

Fig. 1. View of Cooling of Transformer by using desert
coolers r base
Fig 2. View of cooling Transformer by using desert coolers
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The transformer efficiency and the factor affecting the
transformers efficiency are discussed below:
A. Voltage variation and unbalance
Unbalanced incoming voltage will reduce the capacity of
transformer and cause more unbalanced load. Due to low
incoming voltage, the efficiency of the transformer
decreases (G.L. Dua, 1996). Generally, distribution
transformers are provided with off-load tap changers to
maintain the voltage at transformer secondary. The off-
load tap changers are provided with either 5 taps or 7 taps.
In 7 tap changers, the middle tap 4th is 1:1 ratio, the higher
tap numbers i.e., 5 or 6 or 7 will increase the secondary
voltage when the primary voltage is lower than rated value
whereas lower taps i.e., 1 or 2 or 3 will reduce the
secondary voltage in-case of primary voltage is higher
than rated value. The voltage step between each tap is
2.5% of secondary rated voltage. Thus, 7 tap off load tap
changer will provide voltage variation of 7.5%. The
sensitivity of efficiency to voltage is more pronounced at
lower power factors i.e., below 0.90. When the power
Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques
Int. Res. J. Power Energy Engin. 106
factor is above 0.90, the variation in efficiency offered by
voltage is less.
Case study 1: In a case study in an industry, the 500 kVA
transformer (provided with off load tap changer of 7 taps)
secondary voltage was measured during peak hour was
about 380 V and the transformer tap was middle at 4. The
computed transformer efficiency at an average load factor
of 52% was 98.58%. The transformer tap position was
increased to 7 by de-energising and again charged the
transformer. The voltage was improved to about 400 V on
secondary side with the same load factor of 52%. The
transformer efficiency is computed as 98.65% i.e., an
increase of about 0.07%. The reduction of power loss in
500 kVA transformer is 0.19 kW. The saving in transformer
winding loss by changing the transformer tap is computed
as:
V 2 LF 2
Llosstap 2 1 WC W (3)
V1 100
Where V1 is the present transformer secondary voltage in
V, V2 is the voltage after changing the transformer tap in
V, LF is the load factor of transformer in % and W c is the
transformer winding loss at full load in W.
The higher secondary voltage improved the illumination
level by about 10% and also enhanced the performance of
process end-use equipments.
B. Harmonics
The effects of harmonic currents are copper loss due to
circulating currents, increased core loss and interference
magnetically with communication circuits and protective
gear (Ramakrishnaiah R, 1996). The effects of harmonic
voltages are increased dielectric stresses, electrostatic
interference with communication circuits and resonance
between the inductance of the transformer windings and
the capacitance of a feeder to which they are connected
(Ned mohan and Girish R Kamath, 1997). The voltage total
harmonic distortion (THD) was measured about 7.4 % in
an industry. But as per IEEE 519-1992, the voltage THD
should be below 5 % and for special applications and
critical loads it should be below 3 % for the system voltage
up to 69 kV. The harmonics will reduce the capacity of
transformers up to about 50 % and these can be
suppressed by using harmonic filters (Rajashekar P.
Mandi and Udaykumar R Yaragatti, 2016).
C. Load unbalance
Generally, in an industry the load between 3-phases must
be balanced but due to various reasons like providing
power to single phase and two-phase loads, dissimilar
loading of 3-phases, difference in power factor in 3-
phases, etc., causes load unbalance in distribution
system. This un-balanced load on transformer secondary
increases the transformer loss as well as reduce the
capacity of transformer as compared to balanced load.
Mandi RP. 107

Case study 2: In a case study in Thermal power plant, the

loading of lighting transformers is studied. Table II gives
the current in three phases, load unbalance at primary &
secondary side of transformer ( / Y connection) (100 kVA,
0.433/0.433 kV) in a power station. The load unbalance on
secondary is in the range of 5.08 % and 32.45 % and the
load unbalance at primary side is 18.44 % and 82.58 %.
The increased loss due to load unbalance is 548
kWh/month. The flow of unbalanced current in secondary
increased flow of current in primary windings. The
reduction in load unbalance below 3 % by distributing the
single-phase lighting loads equally on all three phases
reduces the energy losses in transformer and network
losses.

TABLE II. MEASURED CURRENT AND COMPUTED Fig. 3. Variation of efficiency with load factor.
LOAD UNBALANCE AT LIGHTING TRANSFORMERS.
Case study 3: In a case study at power station, the power
Primary current, Secondary Load factor measured at secondary of Lighting transformers in
Particular A current, A unbalance, each phase are in the range of 0.06 and 0.93 (Table III).
R Y B R Y B % The lower power factor causes more flow of current in the
Tr. No. 23 12.5 11.4 12.3 7.8 9.8 6. 8 20.2 transformer winding that increased the losses in
Tr. No. 43 12.6 13.8 13.0 6.7 11.7 7.1 37.8 transformer. The installation of switchable single phase
Tr. No. 33 34.5 28.5 37.1 35.2 25.2 32.3 18.4 capacitor banks (360 kVAR) at secondaries of
Tr. No. 26 27.0 28.4 21.7 18.1 32.2 16.9 43.7 transformers lead to energy saving of 892 kWh/month and
Tr. No. 27 23.5 29.0 24.2 17.8 26.1 22.8 19.9 network demand saving of 25 kVA. The investment of Rs.
Tr. No. 52 5.8 6.4 6.7 1.28 2.3 1.1 45.8 4.00 lakhs had a payback period of 40 months.
Tr. No. 29 52.4 44.9 45.8 48.9 49.8 33.3 24.3
Tr. No. 60 12.4 12.3 9.1 6.4 6.2 8.3 18.5 E. Load factor & transformer management
Tr. No. 74 8.0 10.2 7.7 1.1 8.2 7.8 81.1
Tr. No. 55 16.7 13.9 15.2 14.5 13.0 10.2 18.8 The overloading of transformer increases the hot spot
Tr. No. 35 15.1 12.2 12.0 12.1 13.1 3.2 66.2 temperature of winding. The rate of deterioration increases
exponentially with temperature rise. This will reduce the
D. Power factor transformer life drastically.

The power factor in industries was varying between 0.70
to 0.85. At poor power factor of secondary load, the
transformer efficiency is low. Fig. 3 gives the efficiency of
transformer with improvement in power factor for 500 kVA
transformers. The efficiency for 500 kVA transformer (load
factor: 35%) is increased from 97.6 % to 98.5 % by
improving the power factor from 0.70 to about 0.98. This
had reduced the energy consumption of 324 kWh/month
and the demand saving was 50 kVA. The investment is Rs.
1.50 lakhs (125 kVAR) and the payback period with
considering the total demand saving at network is 13
months which is economically feasible solution.
Case study 4: In a case study in an industry, there were
24 transformers of different ratings installed in six sub-
stations. Table IV gives the load factor and all-day
efficiency of transformers. The transformers are loaded
between 6.4 % and 39.6 %. The load factors were very
less. The de-energisation of low loaded and standby
transformers, and charging any one of the transformers in
each group reduced the energy consumption of 24.58
MWh/month in an industry. The changeover of transformer
charging may be programmed cyclically by PLC based
automatic controller or manual in 4-6-day cycle to avoid
increase of moisture content of transformer oil.

Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques

 Int. Res. J. Power Energy Engin. 108

Table IV. energy savings through transformer management

Sl. No. Particular Present New Energy saving, kWh/
Present LF, % Group New LF, %
all day , % all day , % month
01 S/S 1 TR.1 14.5 90.2 -
02 S/S 1 TR.2 06.3 88.1
03 S/S 1 TR.3 03.3 86.1 A 40.3 98.5 6,872
04 S/S 1 TR.4 10.6 90.3
05 S/S 1 TR.5 05.6 89.1
06 S/S 2 TR.1 06.4 89.1
07 S/S 2 TR.2 24.7 89.7
08 S/S 2 TR.3 17.7 90.1 B 44.0 98.3 3,241
09 S/S 2 TR.4 03.6 75.1
10 S/S 3 TR.1 15.8 90.2
11 S/S 3 TR.2 17.9 91.4 C 33.70 92.1 1,215
12 S/S 3 TR.3 07.1 87.2
13 S/S 3 TR4 09.1 90.3 D 40.2 97.8 2,029
14 S/S 3 TR.5 24.0 91.1
15 S/S 4 TR.1 Stand-by
16 S/S 4 TR.2 35.5 96.8 E 41.9 98.8 3,560
17 S/S 4 TR.3 06.4 85.3
18 S/S 5 TR.1 Stand-by
19 S/S 5 TR.2 39.6 95.3 F 39.6 95.3 2,133
20 S/S 5 TR.3 Stand-by
21 S/S 5 TR.4 33.1 94.8 G 40.8 97.8 3,638
22 S/S 5 TR.5 07.7 87.3
23 S/S 6 TR.1 Stand-by
24 S/S 6 TR.2 38.2 97.8 H 38.2 97.8 1,893

The transformer efficiency will be maximum when iron
losses are equal to winding losses. Generally, the iron
losses and winding losses will be equal at load factor of 45
to 55 % in case of distribution transformers. If the iron
losses and winding losses are equal at 50 % load factor.
Till the transformer load factor increases to 50 %, the iron
losses will be dominant and above 50 % load factor, the
winding losses will be dominant. In case if two
transformers are sharing the load, it is economical to
operate only one transformer while de-energizing other
transformer till the load factor transformer reaches to about
70 %. If the load factor is more than 70 %, it is economical
to operate both transformers in parallel to reduce winding
losses. In order to optimization of number of transformers
to be energized following relation is developed. The
number of transformers to be charged in a bunch of
transformer is computed and is given in Table V.
PT2 P for 210 MW plant. The auxiliary load is about 18 to 19 MW.
X 2 n C ( 4)
Pr Pi
Where PT is the total demand in kVA, Pr is the rating of
transformer in kVA, Pi is the No-load losses in kW, Pc is
the Load losses of transformer in kW and n is the No. of
transformers present.
Table V. Transformers to be charged with different values of X
Numbers to be charged Value of X
1 X2
2 2X 6
3 6 X 12
4 12 X 20
5 30 X 30
It can be seen from the Table V that if X is between 2 and
6, the number of transformers to be charged is 2 numbers
to optimize the total transformer losses.
Case study 5: In a thermal power plant, there are two
station transformers (charged from the grid, 220 kV / 6.6
kV) of 50 MVA ratings for two 210 MW units and two unit
auxiliary transformers (charged from the individual 210
MW generator voltage, 15.7 kV / 6.6 kV) of 16 MVA rating
During a cold start, the entire auxiliary load is handled by
the station transformers. Even if the load on the unit is
increased to full load, the auxiliaries will still be on the
station transformers. Our study indicated that when the
load on each unit is raised above 30 MW, the auxiliary load
can be shifted on to unit auxiliary transformers.

Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques

Mandi RP. 109

F. Oil quality phenolic or amino type, convert chain forming molecules

As the temperature of the transformer oil increases, the in the oil into inactive molecules, being gradually
temperature and resistance of winding increases consumed in the process. Inhibitors greatly prolong the
correspondingly and the transformer efficiency decreases. phase in the service life of the oil which precedes the onset
The temperature rise should be limited as per B.S. of deterioration and during which the acid and sludge
171:1936. The important physical property i.e., Interfacial formations are substantially zero.
tension, Chemical properties i.e., acidity, sludge content
and water content, and electrical properties i.e., dielectric Modeling of transformers
strength (breakdown voltage), dielectric dissipation factor
The transformer losses consist of load losses (85 % of total
(Tan ) and resistivity are responsible for lower transformer
losses) and no-load losses (15 % of total losses) in the
efficiency.
ratio of 17 : 3 for a typical distribution transformer (Darshan
The electrical properties of transformer oil are important in Sakpal, 1996)
its function as an insulator, and their maintenance at an
acceptable level (Table VI) ensures satisfactory equipment Table VII gives the load losses in 2 MVA (11/0.433 kV)
performance, reduces ohmic losses and limits discharge transformer. The load losses are grouped into (a) I2 R loss:
inception within the oil. To keep higher transformer Due to winding resistance & the current flowing through
efficiency, the oil should have high dielectric strength, high the transformer winding and these losses from about 75 %
resistivity and low dielectric dissipation factor. Sludging is of load losses. (b) Stray losses: These are produced by the
the slow formation of semi-solid hydrocarbons and are leakage flux which cuts the conductors & metallic parts
deposited on windings and tank walls. The formation of such as frame, tank, clamping structures, etc., and due to
sludge is due to heat and oxidation. Experience shows that the circulating current through these metal parts.
sludge is formed more quickly in the presence of bright
copper surfaces. The transformer oil has to be heated in Table VII. Load losses in a transformer
the presence of oxygen to test the sludge formation. If the S/No Particular Loss, % of load loss
sludge formation is less than the prescribed limit, the oil
01 I2R losses 75
has to be changed.
02 Stray losses 25
Table VI. Properties of transformer oil. 2.1 Winding eddy current losses 6
Particulars Units Limits 2.2 Losses in tank, frame, etc.. 2.5
Sludge % 0.10 2.3 High current carrying lead
2.5
Acidity after oxidation ( max ) mg KOH/G 0.40 loss
0C
Flash point ( min. ) 140 2.4 Circulating current loss 14
Viscosity at - 15 0C cSt 800
Viscosity at 27 0C cSt 40 The I2 R losses may be reduced by reducing the resistance
0C
Pour point ( max. ) -30 of winding i.e., by increasing the conductor cross section.
Break down voltage with 2.5 The stray losses can be minimized by reducing the
mm standard gap
conductor size and increasing the number of conductors in
Upto 11 kV kV 25
parallel, increasing the clearances of tank and metallic
11 - 33 kV kV 30
parts with conductors and adequate arrangement of inlet
66 - 220kV kV 40
& outlet leads. The load losses also can be reduced by
220kV kV 45
400kV kV 50
transposing the conductors such that each conductor cut
Water content ( max.) ppm 5.00 the same leakage flux.
Acidity (neutralization value
mg KOH/g 0.03 The no load losses are those independent of the load.
(max.)
Dissipation factor (Tan ) (max.) These are mainly due to eddy current and hysteresis
at 270C - 0.005 losses in core. The use of amorphous (metallic glass core)
at 900C - 0.001 in place of CRGO core will reduce the no load losses [13].
Oil density at 270C kg/m3 890 Table VIII presents the no load losses of transformers for
different core material. It can be seen from the table that
Due to oxidation of transformer oil produces CO 2, volatile, the loss reduction is about 70 % and 76%.
water soluble organic acids and water. These combination
attack and corrode iron and other metal parts. Oil Table VIII. No-load losses for different cores
conservators are desirable to avoid the condensation of
water soluble acids on the under surface of the tank lid Rating, No-load losses, W Saving,
from which acidic droplets may fall back into the oil. kVA CRGO Amorphous %
25 100 30 70
The deterioration of oil during its working life be retarded 63 180 45 75
by the use of oxidation inhibitors which are usually of the 100 260 60 77
Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques

Automation of Transformer network
In an industry where the distribution system is widely
spread over, it is emphasized to introduce the automated
distribution network control system [14] which contains
Power Monitoring Devices (PMD), power transducers,
CTs, PTs, Programmable logic controllers (PLC),
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA),
application software, etc.
The PMD works based on the input data from power
transducers that have the ability not only to gather and
analyze the power system data but also the added
functionality of remote status input and control outputs for
peripheral functions such as Alarm, Trip and Control
action.
These devices when integrated with PLCs and SCADA
based computer workstations, will provide very powerful
power monitoring control, protection of power automation
system and along with application software will supervise,
control, collect, analyze and archival of the data.
The application software can offer graphic-based data
displays that can be used for displaying real-time power
data parameters and graphics of the power monitoring
system. This can provide the evaluation of power/energy
input, losses, load factor, all day efficiency, etc., on hourly,
daily, monthly and yearly on the mean value basis. The
critical conditions can be stored and re-viewed whenever
required. The charging and de-energisation of
transformers can also be programmed.
CONCLUSION
Present all India electrical energy loss occurring on
account of transformers - size mismatch and internal
losses in industrial sector is ~ 520 MW. Energy loss due to
voltage variation and unbalance is varying between 1.5 -
6.5 % of total transformer load which can be reduced in the
range of 1.0 - 4.0 % by implementing energy conservation
techniques like installation of regulating transformer on HT
side and appropriate selection of transformer tapping. The
minimization of load unbalance on transformer
secondaries and operational optimization of transformer
reduces the energy losses from 1.5 - 6.5 % of transformer
load to 1.2 - 4.5 %. The improvement of power factor on
secondaries of 500 kVA transformer near to 0.96
enhanced the transformer efficiency from 94.25 - 97.75 %
to 95.5 - 98.7 %. Appropriate sizing of transformer and load
management as suggested in the paper, reduces the
energy loss from 5 - 16 % of the total energy handled by
transformer to 2.5 - 8.2 %. The implementation of overall
energy conservation measures reduces the all India
transformer loss by 35 % of the present loss which works
out to a saving of about 180 MW.
Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques
Int. Res. J. Power Energy Engin. 110
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Mandi RP. 111

Accepted 23 October, 2017

Citation: Mandi RP (2017). Enhancing Energy Efficiency

of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation
Techniques. International Research Journal of Power and
Energy Engineering, 3(2): 104-111.

Copyright: 2017. Mandi RP. This is an open-access

article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are cited.

Enhancing Energy Efficiency of Distribution Transformers through Energy Conservation Techniques