RAINFALL AND RUNOFF ANALYSIS IN CAVITE

Undergraduate Thesis
Submitted to Engr. John Paulo M. Perido
Cavite State University
Indang, Cavite

SANTOS, JOSE NICHOLAS DE FERRARI S.

ROO, BRYAN MICHAEL Q.
2017
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Page

LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES iii

INTRODUCTION 1
DISCUSSION................ 3
Rainfall Characteristics. 3
Variability of Annual Rainfall 4
Probability Analysis.. 4
Assessment of Annual Rainfall. 5
Rainwater Harvesting. 5
SUMMARY. 7
CONCLUSION 7
REFERENCES 8
 LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES
Table
1 Annual rainfall in Cavite (1990-2012) . 4
Figure
1 The Runoff Process.. 3
2 Graphical representation of the average rainfall amount in Cavite.. 5
 RAINFALL AND RUNOFF ANALYSIS IN CAVITE

Jose Nicholas de Ferrari S. Santos

Bryan Michael Q. Roo

An undergraduate thesis manuscript submitted to Engr. John Paulo M.

Perido, Instructor from Department of Agriculture and Food
Engineering, College of Engineering and Information Technology,
Cavite State University, Indang, Cavite, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

I. Introduction
The complete understanding of the range and the likelihood of rainfall amounts
received in a certain location, can provide the designers, planners and decision makers
useful guides to prepare for and deal with the consequences of precipitation anomalies.
Models of rainfall probability distributions over various timescales can provide useful
information. The development of a frequency model starts with the historical data
acquisition. These data provide the necessary information about the accumulated rainfall
in different locations and describe the time and spatial variability of these rainfall values.
An important question in hydrology is how much stream flow occurs in a river in
response to a given amount of rainfall. To answer this question, we need to know where
water goes when it rains, how long does water reside in a watershed, and what pathway
does water take to the stream channel. These are the questions addressed in the study of
rainfall runoff processes, or more generally surface water input runoff processes. The
term, "surface water input" is used in preference to rainfall or precipitation to be inclusive
of snowmelt as a driver for runoff.
Answering the question of how much runoff is generated from surface water inputs
requires partitioning water inputs at the earth surface into components that infiltrate and
components that flow overland and directly enter streams. The pathways followed by
infiltrated water need to be understood. Infiltrated water can follow subsurface pathways
that take it to the stream relatively quickly, in which case it is called interflow or subsurface
stormflow. Infiltrated water can also percolate to deep groundwater, which may sustain the
steady flow in streams over much longer time scales that is called base flow. Infiltrated
water can also remain in the soil to later evaporate or be transpired back to the atmosphere.
The paths taken by water determine many of the characteristics of a landscape, the
occurrence and size of floods, the uses to which land may be put and the strategies required
for wise land management. Understanding and modeling the rainfall runoff process is
therefore important in many flood and water resources problems.
The rainfall runoff question is also at the heart of the interface linking meteorology
and hydrology. Quantifying and forecasting precipitation falls into the realm of
meteorology and is part of the mission of the National Weather Service. Meteorological
forcing is also a driver of snowmelt surface water inputs. River forecasting involves the
use of meteorological variables as driving inputs to the surface hydrology system to obtain
streamflow. The temporal and spatial scales associated with surface water inputs, given as
output from meteorological processes have profound effects on the hydrological processes
that partition water inputs at the earth surface. High intensity short duration rainfall is much
more likely to exceed the capacity of the soil to infiltrate water and result in overland flow
than a longer less intense rainfall. In arid climates with deep water tables, spatially
concentrated rainfall on a small area may generate local runoff that then infiltrates
downriver, whereas a more humid area with shallow water tables is less likely to be subject
to stream infiltration losses and even gentle rainfall when widespread and accumulated
over large areas may lead to large stream flows.
Precipitation may be in the form of rain or snow. Vegetation may intercept some
fraction of precipitation. Precipitation that penetrates the vegetation is referred to as
through fall and may consist of both precipitations that does not contact the vegetation, or
that drops or drains off the vegetation after being intercepted. A large fraction of
intercepted water is commonly evaporated back to the atmosphere. There is also flux of
water to the atmosphere through transpiration of the vegetation and evaporation from soil
and water bodies. The surface water input available for the generation of runoff consists of
through fall and snowmelt. This surface water input may accumulate on the surface in
depression storage, or flow overland towards the streams as overland flow, or infiltrate into
the soil, where it may flow laterally towards the stream contributing to interflow. Infiltrated
water may also percolate through deeper soil and rock layers into the groundwater. The
water table is the surface below which the soil and rock is saturated and at pressure greater
than atmospheric. This serves as the boundary between the saturated zone containing
groundwater and unsaturated zone. Water added to the groundwater is referred to as
groundwater recharge. Immediately above the water table is a region of soil that is close to
saturation, due to water being held by capillary forces. This is referred to as the capillary
fringe. Lateral drainage of the groundwater into streams is referred to as base flow, because
it sustains streamflow during rainless periods. Subsurface water, either from interflow or
from groundwater may flow back across the land surface to add to overland flow. This is
referred to as return flow. Overland flow and shallower interflow processes that transport
water to the stream within the time scale of approximately a day or so are classified as
runoff. Water that percolates to the groundwater moves at much lower velocities and
reaches the stream over longer periods of time such as weeks, months or even years. The
terms quick flow and delayed flow are also used to describe and distinguish between runoff
and base flow. Runoff includes surface runoff (overland flow) and subsurface runoff or
subsurface stormflow (interflow). (Tarboton, 2003)

Figure 1 THE RUNOFF PROCESS

II. Discussion
A. Rainfall Characteristics
Precipitation in arid and semi-arid zones results largely from convective
cloud mechanisms producing storms typically of short duration, relatively high
intensity and limited areal extent. However, low intensity frontal-type rains are also
experienced, usually in the winter season. When most precipitation occurs during
winter, as in Jordan and in the Negev, relatively low-intensity rainfall may represent
the greater part of annual rainfall.
Rainfall intensity is defined as the ratio of the total amount of rain (rainfall
depth) falling during a given period to the duration of the period It is expressed in
depth units per unit time, usually as mm per hour (mm/h).
The statistical characteristics of high-intensity, short-duration, convective
rainfall are essentially independent of locations within a region and are similar in
many parts of the world. Analysis of short-term rainfall data suggests that there is
a reasonably stable relationship governing the intensity characteristics of this type
of rainfall. Studies carried out in Saudi Arabia (Raikes and Partners 1971) suggest
that, on average, around 50 percent of all rain occurs at intensities in excess of 20
mm/hour and 20-30 percent occurs at intensities in excess of 40 mm/hour. This
relationship appears to be independent of the long-term average rainfall at a
particular location.
B. Variability of Annual Rainfall
Water harvesting planning and management in arid and semi-arid zones
present difficulties which are due less to the limited amount of rainfall than to the
inherent degree of variability associated with it.
In temperate climates, the standard deviation of annual rainfall is about 10-
20 percent and in 13 years out of 20, annual amounts are between 75 and 125
percent of the mean. In arid and semi-arid climates, the ratio of maximum to
minimum annual amounts is much greater and the annual rainfall distribution
becomes increasingly skewed with increasing aridity. With mean annual rainfalls
of 200-300 mm the rainfall in 19 years out of 20 typically ranges from 40 to 200
percent of the mean and for 100 mm/year, 30 to 350 percent of the mean. At more
arid locations it is not uncommon to experience several consecutive years with no
rainfall.
For a water harvesting planner, the most difficult task is therefore to select
the appropriate "design" rainfall according to which the ratio of catchment to
cultivated area will be determined.
a. Design rainfall is defined as the total amount of rain during the cropping
season at which or above which the catchment area will provide sufficient runoff
to satisfy the crop water requirements. If the actual rainfall in the cropping season
is below the design rainfall, there will be moisture stress in the plants; if the actual
rainfall exceeds the design rainfall, there will be surplus runoff which may result in
a damage to the structures.
The design rainfall is usually assigned to a certain probability of occurrence
or exceedance. If, for example, the design rainfall with a 67 percent probability of
exceedance is selected, this means that on average this value will be reached or
exceeded in two years out of three and therefore the crop water requirements would
also be met in two years out of three.
The design rainfall is determined by means of a statistical probability
analysis.

C. Probability Analysis
For the design of water harvesting schemes, this method is as valid as any
analytical method described in statistical textbooks.
The first step is to obtain annual rainfall totals for the cropping season from
the area of concern. In locations where rainfall records do not exist, figures from
stations nearby may be used with caution. It is important to obtain long-term
records. As explained, the variability of rainfall in arid and semi-arid areas is
considerable. An analysis of only 5 or 6 years of observations is inadequate as these
5 or 6 values may belong to a particularly dry or wet period and hence may not be
representative for the long term rainfall pattern.
In the following example, 23 annual rainfall totals from Cavite were used
for an analysis (Table 1).
Table 1 ANNUAL RAINFALL IN CAVITE (1990-2012)
Year R (mm) Year R (mm)
1990 2599 2002 2682
1991 2441 2003 1915
1992 2242 2004 1591
1993 1852 2005 1673
1994 1924 2006 2036
1995 2299 2007 2124
1996 1657 2008 2103
1997 2048 2009 2823
1998 2019 2010 2056
1999 2430 2011 2947
2000 3116 2012 3667
2001 1930

D. Assessment of Annual Rainfall

The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime. It is characterized
by relatively high temperature, high humidity and abundant rainfall. It is similar in
many respects to the climate of the countries of Central America. Temperature,
humidity, and rainfall, which are discussed hereunder, are the most important
elements of the country's weather and climate.
The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064
millimeters annually. Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao receive the
greatest amount of rainfall while the southern portion of Cotabato receives the least
amount of rain. At General Santos City in Cotabato, the average annual rainfall is
only 978 millimeters.
To show variation within the months and not just the monthly totals, we
show the rainfall accumulated over a sliding 31-day period centered around each
day of the year. The entire province of Cavite experiences extreme seasonal
variation in monthly rainfall. Rain falls throughout the year in Cavite. The most
rain falls during the 31 days centered around between August 6-8, with an average
total accumulation of 13.71 inches (348.234 mm). The least rain falls
 around between March 18-22, with an average total accumulation of 1.04 inches
(26.416 mm). The province of Cavite has an average of 1838 mm, per year.

Figure 2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE AVERAGE RAINFALL

AMOUNT IN CAVITE

In the figure above, the graph represents the average rainfall and rainy days
in Cavite from 2009-2017. It shows that there are rainier days during 2009, and then
fluctuates as time passes by. Those low marks in the graph represents that the rainfall
amount in that month of the year is low, because, it was the dry season at that time. In this
decade, the most amount of rainfall happened in 2010, while the least amount of rainfall
occurred in 2014.
E. Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater Harvesting is one such design feature that is to be incorporated
in any kind of building; be it a commercial or residential complex.
 Rainwater Harvesting is a technology in which individual building or a
group of buildings collect and utilize rainwater during the rainy season. This water
can be stored in storage tanks and used for non-domestic purposes.
The builder and the Architects are now becoming aware of the need for
water conservation are making provisions for harvesting rainwater to increase the
underground water table. Provisions have also been made for the recycling process
of water thus helping conserve precious water and reuse it in an efficient way.
a. Importance of Rainwater Harvesting
In a rainwater harvesting system, a storage tank is required which
can be a part of the underground water tank or separate tank on the surface.
This tank collects water falling on the building terraces. The main purpose
of rainwater harvesting system to collect and store rainwater falling on the
ground which can be further be used in the future.
b. Rainwater Harvesting Mechanism
If the ground is hard, the rainwater does not seep into the ground
and is thus not brought into use. Rainwater harvesting pit is an ideal solution
for such problems. The increasing population has resulted in increase of the
use of the water consumption. The water table has gone down considerably.
Hence it is necessary that we make an attempt to store rainwater and use it
in the best possible way.
Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional
water restrictions, and in developed countries, is often used to supplement the main
supply. It provides water when a drought occurs, can help mitigate flooding of low-
lying areas, and reduces demand on wells which may enable groundwater levels to
be sustained. It also helps in the availability of potable water, as rainwater is
substantially free of salinity and other salts. Application of rainwater harvesting
in urban water system provides a substantial benefit for both water
supply and wastewater subsystems by reducing the need for clean water in water
distribution system, less generated storm water in sewer system, and a reduction in
storm water runoff polluting freshwater bodies.
A large body of work has focused on the development of lifecycle
assessment and lifecycle costing methodologies to assess the level of environmental
impacts and money that can be saved by implementing rainwater harvesting
systems.
More development and knowledge is required to understand the benefits of
rainwater harvesting that can provide to agriculture. Many countries, especially
those with arid environments, use rainwater harvesting as a cheap and reliable
source of clean water. To enhance irrigation in arid environments, ridges of soil are
constructed to trap and prevent rainwater from running down hills and slopes. Even
 in periods of low rainfall, enough water is collected for crops to grow. Water can
be collected from roofs, and dams and ponds can be constructed to hold large
quantities of rainwater so that even on days when little to no rainfall occurs, enough
is available to irrigate crops.

III. Summary
Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the Philippines. Rainfall
distribution throughout the country varies from one region to another, depending upon the
direction of the moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain systems.
Rainfall in Cavite have an average amount of rainfall annually, despite of being
prone to storms. Luzon has the most frequent rainfall in The Philippines, which means, th
province of Cavite has more rainfall amount compared to other provinces, mostly, in
Mindanao.
Rainwater harvesting is a technique used for collecting, storing, and using rainwater
for landscape irrigation and other uses. The rainwater is collected from various hard
surfaces such as rooftops and/or other manmade aboveground hard surfaces.
IV. Conclusion
Rainfall is a natural hydrologic event in which is a unique phenomenon, with
changing in both time and space. The distribution in rainfall is unbalanced and it is not
varied considerability from place to place but year by year, it fluctuates. Rainfall has the
biggest factor in agricultural activities.
Runoff can be described as the part of the water cycle that flows over land as surface
water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or evaporating.
The rainfall in Cavite is common all year. With an average rainfall of 1838 mm,
the chance of having rain is pretty less than that in other provinces, however, the province
is prone to storms, which is why Cavite had twice the average rainfall annually than that in
Cotabato, a province with the least amount of rainfall all year round. Other provinces had
higher amount of rainfall per year because which they are the first one to be hit by storm,
in which, Cavite only experienced a much weaker rainfall during storm.
V. References
http://www.fao.org/docrep/u3160e/u3160e05.htm
http://philfsis.psa.gov.ph/index.php/id/15/matrix/J20FSMRI
https://weatherspark.com/countries/PH/40/20
http://hydrology.usu.edu/RRP/userdata/4/87/RainfallRunoffProcesses.pdf
https://www.worldweatheronline.com/cavite-weather-averages/cavite-city/ph.aspx
https://www.dpaw.wa.gov.au/management/fire/fire-and-the-environment/52-fire-
and-the-landscape