JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH 2003;32:436 442
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Using Social Cognitive Theory to Explain
Discretionary, Leisure-time Physical Exercise
Among High School Students
ERIC R. WINTERS, Ph.D., ATC, RICK L. PETOSA, Ph.D., AND
THOMAS E. CHARLTON, EMT-B
Purpose: To examine whether knowledge of high
school students actions of self-regulation, and percep-
tions of self-efficacy to overcome exercise barriers, social
situation, and outcome expectation will predict non-
school related moderate and vigorous physical exercise.
Methods: High school students enrolled in introduc-
tory Physical Education courses completed question-
naires that targeted selected Social Cognitive Theory
variables. They also self-reported their typical leisure-
time exercise participation using a standardized ques-
tionnaire. Bivariate correlation statistic and hierarchical
regression were conducted on reports of moderate and
vigorous exercise frequency.
Results: Each predictor variable was significantly asso-
ciated with measures of moderate and vigorous exercise
frequency. All predictor variables were significant in the
final regression model used to explain vigorous exercise.
After controlling for the effects of gender, the psychoso-
cial variables explained 29% of variance in vigorous
exercise frequency. Three of four predictor variables
were significant in the final regression equation used to
explain moderate exercise. The final regression equation
accounted for 11% of variance in moderate exercise
frequency.
Conclusions: Professionals who attempt to increase the
prevalence of physical exercise through educational
methods should focus on the psychosocial variables
From the Department of Physical Education, Denison University,
Granville, Ohio (E.R.W.); Health and Physical Activity Behavior, Ohio
State University (R.L.P.), Columbus, Ohio; and Denison University,
Granville, Ohio (T.E.C.).
Address correspondence to: Eric Ross Winters, Ph.D., ATC Assis-
tant Professor, Department of Physical Education, Denison University,
Granville, OH 43023. E-mail: winterse@denison.edu.
Manuscript accepted November 12, 2002.
1054-139X/03/$see front matter
doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00046-6
utilized in this study. Society for Adolescent Medicine,
2003
KEY WORDS:
Adolescents
High school students
Leisure time
Physical exercise
Social Cognitive Theory
During recent years the importance of promoting
physical activity during adolescence has become
increasingly recognized. This shift toward promot-
ing adolescent physical activity has been supported
by the consistent association between cardiovascular
fitness and decreased risk of mortality among adult
subjects [13]. Another factor has been the realization
that maintaining even a moderately active life will
reduce the risk of premature death among adults
[4,5]. Unfortunately physical activity rates decline
consistently during the adolescent years [6,7]. It is
clear that one important path to extending life and
preventing disease begins by increasing physical
activity rates during adolescence. The Office of the
United States Surgeon General echoed this logic [8].
Effective interventions should be based on re-
search that identifies determinants of physical activ-
ity among adolescents [9]. Ideally these empirically
verified determinants would then be tested for mod-
ifiability in the context of school based programs.
Unfortunately there are only a few published studies
identifying valuable constructs according to a review
Society for Adolescent Medicine, 2003
Published by Elsevier Inc., 360 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10010
June 2003
of forty-five studies of environmental and psycho-
social determinants of adolescent physical activity
[10]. Social factors were found to be associated with
adolescents physical exercise. The authors con-
cluded that many potential constructs were of inde-
terminate magnitude owing in part to weaknesses in
study methods, including: lack of theoretical basis
for study, errors in measurement, poor sampling,
and inappropriate data analysis strategies.
The purpose of this study was to test selected
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) constructs in explain-
ing discretionary, leisure-time physical exercise
among high school aged adolescents. Specifically the
SCT constructs of social situation, self-efficacy, out-
come expectations values, and self-regulation were
used to predict discretionary moderate and vigorous
physical exercise. In an effort to address measure-
ment problems cited previously, each of the instru-
ments used in this study had established validity and
reliability. The results of this study will identify
potentially modifiable constructs useful for the de-
sign of effective interventions to promote physical
exercise.
Methods
Three high schools in central Ohio were recruited for
the study. Data were collected in intact physical
education classrooms during two consecutive days.
One class period was dedicated to collecting the SCT
questionnaires, the Godan Leisure-time Physical Ac-
tivity questionnaire, resting pulse, resting blood
pressure, height, and weight. The second class pe-
riod was dedicated to obtaining student times in a
one and one half-mile walk/run. Only data provided
by students who returned a satisfactory parental
consent form and completed a minimum of 80% of
the study activities were entered into the research
database. The Institutional Review Board of Denison
University approved all research procedures.
Sample
A total of 248 students returned an acceptable paren-
tal informed consent and completed a minimum of
80% of the activities associated with this study. The
sample represents a convenience sample. Partici-
pates in this study were 150 females, and 98 males.
Average age among participants was 15 years. All
but 5 of the subjects reported being in 9th or 10th
grade. Seventy-eight, or 52%, of females in the sam-
ple and 67, or 68% of males in the sample reported
WINTERS ET AL 437
participating on an organized athletic team during
the previous year. The percentage of female athletes
in the sample is approximately 2% higher than
population estimates. The percentage of male ath-
letes in the sample is approximately 7% greater than
population estimates.
Instruments
Leisure-time physical exercise was measured using
the Godin/Shephard exercise self-report instrument
which asks subjects to provide the number of times
during a typical week they participated in strenuous
exercise and moderate exercise [11]. For this study,
subjects were instructed to report only leisure-time
strenuous and or moderate exercise (i.e. bouts that
lasted a minimum of 15 minutes and occurred out-
side of physical education class and which was not
associated with organized athletics). Strenuous exer-
cise was operationally defined as exercise that re-
sulted in sweating, labored breathing, and rapid
heart rate. Moderate exercise was defined as exercise
that could be conducted while holding a conversa-
tion and did not result in labored breathing or rapid
heart rate. The Godin Leisure-time Exercise Ques-
tionnaire previously has been reported to have retest
reliability at one month for vigorous, .84, as well as
moderate, .36. This instrument also has been re-
ported to have criterion-related validity, .36 with
accelerometry. [11,12].
Social Situation was measured using a self-report
questionnaire containing eight items. This instru-
ment was originally developed by Reynolds et al
[13]. Later it was expanded upon by Trost et al [14].
This instrument measures instrumental social sup-
port, social encouragement, and social expectations
that are provided by friends and family members for
physical exercise. This instrument has previously
been demonstrated to have construct validity [15].
This instrument has also been reported to have
internal reliability, .75, and retest reliability, .78 [14].
In order to increase the internal reliability of the
instrument by increasing response variability, the
original reporting scale was extended from dichoto-
mous responses to a five-point Likert-type scale.
Self-efficacy for exercise is defined as the per-
ceived ability to overcome barriers to exercise. A
previously developed instrument was selected for
this study [15]. This Strength of self-efficacy instru-
ment has been demonstrated to have construct va-
lidity [15] and predictive validity for both 5th-grade
boys and girls, .23 and .27 [14]. Retest reliability of
this scale has been reported to be .82 [14]. For the
438 SCT AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH Vol. 32, No. 6

Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Self-Reported
Participation in Moderate and Vigorous Physical Exercise
(N 236)
Moderate Vigorous
Physical Exercise Physical Exercise
Days n (cum%) n (cum%)
0 18 (8) 27 (11)
1 25 (18) 28 (23)
2 39 (35) 27 (35)
3 43 (53) 45 (54)
4 27 (64) 22 (63)
5 34 (79) 48 (84)
6 15 (85) 15 (90)
7 35 (100) 24 (100)
purposes of this study three additional items were
included in order to broaden the topics of self-
efficacy sampled, thereby increasing the content va-
lidity of the instrument. By adding these items, the
construct validity of the instrument may be compro-
mised, however, owing to the limited number of
subjects within this study, confirmatory factor ana-
lytic procedures was not possible. Results from this
study will be used to examine the predictive validity
for this newly altered self-efficacy instrument. In
order to increase the internal reliability of the instru-
ment by increasing response variability, the response
scale was shifted from dichotomous to a five-point
Likert-type scale.
Outcome expectation value is a construct created
by multiplying an outcome expectation with
matched outcome expectancies [16]. Outcome expec-
tations are the anticipated consequences of a behav-
ior. For example, the belief, regular exercise will
make me more attractive, is a belief about the effects
of regular exercise on the body seen through the lens
of values regarding attractiveness. Outcome expect-
ancies are the relative values that an individual
places on each outcome expectation. Referring to the
previous example, people would vary widely on the
personal importance of physical attractiveness. If an
individual believes a behavior is linked to a desirable
outcome, the behavior is more likely to be practiced
regularly.
The instrument upon which outcome expectation
values were measured was based on a conceptual
model that has been previously published [17]. This
model has been used by other authors to develop
and validate similar instruments [18 20]. The instru-
ment used in this study assesses outcomes expecta-
tions and their associated expectancies for physical
exercise by requesting information on eight dimen-
sions. These include: relaxation, fitness, competition,
social growth, social continuation, thrills, expressive
movement, and beautiful movement. Each of the
eight dimensions is assessed by five items. In a
previous study, an earlier version of this instrument
was examined within high school students for con-
struct validity and internal reliability, and ranges of
internal reliability were from .86 to .94 [20].
Self-regulation is the personal regulation of goal-
directed behavior. Although self-regulation is a ma-
jor SCT construct, few studies of adolescent health
behavior have examined this factor. Self-regulation
has been found to be a significant predictor of
moderate physical exercise [20]. The Self-regulation
for Physical Activity instrument measures self-regu-
lation in five dimensions: goal-setting, self-monitor-
ing, gaining and maintaining social support, plan-
ning to overcome barriers, and securing
reinforcements [21]. This 38-item instrument has
construct validity and internal reliability for the five
dimensions range from .78 to .94 [20].
Results
Table 1 provides the frequency distributions for both
discretionary leisure-time moderate and vigorous
physical exercise. 65% of subjects reported engaging
in three or more days of vigorous exercise in a typical
week, and 36% of subjects reported engaging in
moderate exercise on five or more days each week.
Table 2 presents the mean scores and reliability for
each predictor variable. Cronbach alpha was used to
test the reliability of each instrument. Range of
reliability for these predictor variables were .88 to
.93. The observed mean scores for the predictor

Table 2. Descriptive Means, Instrument Reliability, and the Number of Items Used to Measure Each of the Selected
Social Cognitive Theory Variables
Variable N Mean (SD) Alpha Possible Range
Outcome expectation values 190 55.23 (19.64) .93 17100
Self-regulation 232 55.07 (16.62) .90 17100
Social situation 243 55.63 (20.63) .88 20 100
Strength self-efficacy 247 68.66 (18.36) .89 20 100
June 2003 WINTERS ET AL 439

Table 3. Intercorrelations Between Selected Social Cognitive Theory Variables and Measures of Frequency of
Adolescent Leisure-time Vigorous Physical Exercise and Moderate Physical Exercise
Subscale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Gender .25* (n 236) .05 (n 236) .04 (n 190) .10 (n 232) .13 (n 243) .23* (n 247)
2. Vigorous .38* (n 235) .49* (n 182) .44* (n 221) .26* (n 232) .34* (n 235)
3. Moderate .27* (n 181) .26* (n 221) .15* (n 232) .15* (n 235)
4. Outcome exp. values .59* (n 184) .42* (n 186) .54* (n 190)
5. Self-regulation .63* (n 228) .60* (n 231)
6. Social situation .52* (n 242)
7. Strength of self-efficacy
* p .05.

variables were relatively low as none of the predictor
variables achieved a mean score that exceeded 75%
of their respective maximum score.
The intercorrelation matrix (Table 3) reveals a
significant association between each of the predictor
variables and leisure-time vigorous and moderate
exercise bouts. Males and females expressed similar
perceptions regarding their self-regulation, social
situation, and outcome expectancy values, as well as
statistically similar participation in moderate physi-
cal exercise. Males reported more frequent bouts of
vigorous exercise and stronger perceptions of self-
efficacy than their female counterparts. The SCT
variables were demonstrated to have high intercor-
relations. The strongest association among SCT vari-
ables was between self-regulation and social situa-
tion (r .63). Weakest intercorrelation among SCT
variables was the association between outcome ex-
pectancy value and social situation.
Hierarchical multiple-regression was used to test
the ability of the SCT variables to predict bouts of
self-reported discretionary leisure-time vigorous
exercise. Table 4 reveals that each of the predictor
variables were retained in the final model and col-
lectively accounted for 29% of the variance in bouts
of self-reported discretionary leisure-time vigor-
ous exercise after effect of gender was controlled.
Outcome expectancy value, although entered in the
fifth stage, accounted for the most unique variance,
10%. Self-regulation, entered in the fourth stage,
accounted for 8% of unique variance.
Table 5 presents the hierarchical multiple-regres-
sion analysis on self-reported discretionary leisure-
time moderate exercise. The regression model,
which included each of the four SCT variables,
accounted for a significant quantity of variance in
discretionary leisure-time moderate exercise, 11%.
The gender of the subjects was not associated with
the dependent variable in this case and was therefore
not entered into this regression equation. The SCT
variable, social situation, did not capture significant
unique variance in discretionary leisure-time mod-
erate exercise, R2 .01. Self-regulation captured 6%
of the variance in moderate exercise, which accounts
for 55% of the variance explained by the full model.
Discussion
The percentage of subjects in this investigation who
reported engaging in vigorous exercise on three or
more days a week approximates the population
estimate, 65% in this study against 64% for high
school students nationally [22]. As students progress
through high school they tend to decrease their
participation in vigorous exercise [22]. Population
estimate for the percentage of 9th and 10th grade
students who report engaging in vigorous exercise

Table 4. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Frequency of Adolescent Leisure-time
Vigorous Physical Exercise (N 174)
Stage Variable -R2 R2 hSS df F-value P
1 Gender .06 64.83 1 14.57 .05
2 Social situation .12 .06 57.56 1 12.85 .05
3 Strength of self-efficacy .17 .05 51.86 1 11.47 .05
4. Self-regulation .25 .08 72.24 1 16.42 .05
5. Outcome expectation value .35 .10 47.09 1 10.35 .05
Full model .35 293.58 5 18.40 .000
Residual 536.01 168
440 SCT AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE
Table 5. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Frequency of Adolescent Leisure-time
Moderate Physical Exercise (N 172)
Stage Variable -R2
1 Strength of self-efficacy .02
2 Social situation .03
3. Self-regulation .07
4. Outcome expectation value .11
Full model .11
Residual
on three or more days each week is 71.9% and 67%,
respectively [22].
Percentage of subjects in this investigation who
reported engaging in moderate exercise on five or
more days a week was 10% higher than the popula-
tion estimate. Thirty-six percent of subjects within
this study reported exercising moderately on five or
more days a week whereas the population of high
school students is estimated to be 26% [22].
It appears that subjects within this study engaged
in vigorous exercise at a similar rate as the typical
grade nine and ten student, and engaged in substan-
tially more moderate exercise than the typical high
school student. The finding that the participants in
this investigation were more active than the typical
high school student indicates that results from this
study are most applicable to more active early high
school students.
This investigation explored the possibility that
measurement error and the presence of a mediating
variable may explain the previously reported inde-
terminate relationship between outcome expectation
and adolescent physical exercise [10]. Correction for
measurement error required the development of a
new instrument based on the model for physical
exercise developed previously by Kenyon [17] and
later extended by Simon et al [18] and Schultz et al
[19]. It was also postulated within this investigation
that the value ascribed to expected outcomes of
regular exercise are mediating variables that when
unaccounted for diminish the explanatory power of
anticipatory thought. Bandura [16] suggested that
this mediation effect should be taken into account. In
order to account for the values ascribed to the
potential outcomes of physical exercise, an outcome
expectancy instrument was developed. Within this
investigation, the values (expectancies) were multi-
plied by the students conviction that potential prod-
ucts (expectations) will be gained through regular
exercise. This treatment of the relationship between
outcome expectancies and expectations is supported
by Bandura [16]. Results from this analysis indicated
JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH Vol. 32, No. 6
R2 hSS df F-value p
22.71 1 4.65 .05
.01 11.87 1 2.40 .05
.06 34.40 1 7.15 .05
.04 21.06 1 4.89 .05
90.04 4 4.93 .001
767.19 168
that knowledge of student outcome expectation
value is a significant explanatory factor of frequency
of leisure-time moderate and vigorous physical ex-
ercise.
Based upon the existing literature it is not possible
to determine if self-efficacy is associated with phys-
ical exercise during adolescence [10]. Explanation for
this indeterminate relationship may be attributed to
errors in measurement. The literature upon which
Sallis et al [10] made their conclusions clearly con-
tained data from a heterogeneous set of definitions of
self-efficacy including: self-efficacy to exercise, self-
efficacy to gain social support, self-efficacy to exer-
cise even though other activities are available, and
self-efficacy to overcome barriers to exercise. The
current investigation explored the relationship be-
tween self-efficacy to overcome barriers to physical
exercise and the frequency of moderate and vigorous
leisure-time physical exercise. Results of this analysis
revealed a significant association with leisure-time
moderate and vigorous physical exercise bouts.
Therefore while self-efficacy variously defined may
not be associated with adolescents exercise partici-
pation it is reasonable to believe that self-efficacy to
overcome barriers to exercise is associated with mod-
erate and vigorous physical exercise.
Social Situation has previously been shown to be
associated with adolescent physical exercise [10].
Results of this study confirm this conclusion in that
Social Situation was significantly associated with
both frequency of vigorous and moderate leisure-
time physical exercise. However this study indicates
that Social Situation is closely associated with the
other SCT variables used in this study and therefore
fails to capture significant unique variance in lei-
sure-time moderate exercise.
Although many previous interventions to increase
moderate to vigorous physical exercise among
younger students have made use of the self-regula-
tion construct, it does not appear that any empirical
evaluation of the relationship between self-regula-
tion and physical exercise participation has been
June 2003
undertaken [10,2325]. Results of the present study
indicate that self-regulation is associated with both
the frequency of leisure-time vigorous and moderate
physical exercise. These results signify the impor-
tance of continuing to address the self-regulating
capacities of early high school students when at-
tempting to increase the frequency of their physical
exercise participation.
Results of the hierarchical regression analysis for
frequency of leisure-time vigorous physical exer-
cise revealed that the linear combination of all four
selected SCT variables explained a significant quan-
tity of variance. After controlling for the demo-
graphic variable gender, the four SCT variables were
able to account for 29% of the variance in frequency
of vigorous exercise.
Results of the regression analysis for frequency of
leisure-time moderate physical exercise revealed
that a linear combination of outcome expectation
values, self-regulation, social situation, and strength
of self-efficacy explained a significant quantity of
variance, 11%. Although only a small fraction of the
total variance was accounted for by the selected SCT
variables, these results are believed to be important.
It appears that this investigation is the first published
report in which significant quantity of variance in
adolescent self-reported moderate exercise was ex-
plained. This investigation also provides empirical
evidence to support the belief that within the adoles-
cent population, self-reported moderate exercise
may be behaviorally different than self-reported vig-
orous exercise. Future authors should explore the
possibility that adolescents moderate exercise may
be determined by a larger and somewhat different
set of variables than adolescents vigorous exercise.
Potentially, a subset of the outcome expectancy val-
ues may be identified that accounts for vigorous
exercise, while a different subset may account for
moderate exercise. An additional possibility is that
psychological response to physiological excitation
during exercise may differentiate those who exercise
vigorously from those who exercise moderately. An
equally important factor in the inability to explain
similar amounts of moderate and vigorous exercise
may be measurement error. Adolescent subjects may
have been uncertain whether certain lifestyle activi-
ties qualified as moderate exercise. If this is true, an
alternative method for measuring moderate exercise
is a pressing problem. This investigation does pro-
vide justification for future authors to initiate and
report methods by which moderate exercise can be
measured as well as additional predictive modeling
of moderate exercise.
WINTERS ET AL 441
Although results from the two regression models
accounted for a statistically significant amount of
variance in self-reported leisure-time moderate
and vigorous exercise participation, the importance
of this finding is undetermined. Currently there are
few published evaluations of exercise promotion
educational interventions among high school stu-
dents [20,23,26]. While these studies demonstrated
effectiveness at improving exercise participation or
physiological adaptations to exercise, the quantity of
exercise variance actually manipulated is but a small
fraction of the exercise variance that can be ex-
plained. The practical importance from this investi-
gation and others like it will likely remain unfulfilled
until more powerful educational experiences can be
developed. Finally, this article has provided what
these authors believe to be the first evidence that
predictors of adolescent exercise differ based on the
intensity of the exercise. This result indicates that
future studies in this area should include a separa-
tion of moderate to vigorous physical exercise into
both moderate and vigorous physical exercise.
Limitations
Results from this investigation should be viewed in
light of certain limitations. The use of the conve-
nience sampling technique employed here does not
provide necessarily accurate estimates of the under-
lying population parameters. The frame from which
these subjects were selected is limited to an immedi-
ate geographical area and therefore results may not
hold for other adolescents in other locations. It
appears that subjects within this investigation were
engaged in more frequent moderate physical exer-
cise than the average American high school student,
and therefore results may hold most closely for a
more active population of adolescents. Failure to
obtain information on subjects ethnicity precluded
an analysis that would determine the degree to
which this samples ethnic distribution compares to
the ethnic distribution among American high school
students.
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