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Recent Topics on Steel Bridge Engineering in Japan
-design and maintenance-
*
Nagaoka University of Technology, nagai@nagaokaut.ac.jp
**
Nagaoka University of Technology, mtakeshi@ nagaokaut.ac.jp
Abstract
Current status on bridge engineering in Japan is briefly summarized. Design and maintenance related research topics are
explained. It is design method and activity towards LSD for hybrid girder bridges is also introduced. As maintenance
related issues, SHMS, application of new material of CFRP, redundancy analysis and weathering steel are introduced.
Keywords: LSD, maintenance, hybrid bridges, SHMS, CFRP, weathering steel, redundancy
4,000
Figure 1. Comparison of bridge construction number between USA and JPN (by MLITT)
huge budget has to be prepared. On the contrary, if we to 60 meters. Fig.5 shows the total construction number
continue preventive procedure such as cyclic inspection of these types of bridge. From this figure, it is seen that
and, if necessary, repair work, it is natural to think that the increase of I-girder bridges is prominent. Fig.6 is PC
the maintenance cost will be saved. This is the reason box girder bridges with steel corrugated web or steel pipe
why MLITT changed policy and started the preventive truss web. When the span length less than 40 meters, and
maintenance strategy. exceeds 60 or 70 meters, PC bridges are very
competitive. In order to compete with long-span concrete
3. Design issues bridges, steel bridge engineers are now proposing a
3.1. General double-composite girder bridge and cable-stayed
As explained in chapter 2, since new bridge construction composite girder bridges, however, they have not been
business is now shrinking, the competition between steel realized so far.
and concrete alternatives is becoming severe and severe. Our proposition to enhance competitiveness is to
To cope with subject, the development and proposition of establish a happy collaboration of the following three
steel-concrete hybrid (composite or mixed) bridges in items, such as 1) Introduction of LSD for steel-concrete
both steel and concrete sides is active. hybrid bridges, 2) In addition to newly developed
Fig.3 and Fig.4 show steel I-girder and box girder conventional two I-girder bridges (see Fig.3),
bridges with a very simplified transverse stiffening introduction of new structural type such as double-
system, which are alternatives proposed by bridge composite girder (see Fig.7) and hybrid girders (see
engineers belonging to Nippon Expressway Company Fig.8) and 3) Utilization of HPS for thick plate such as
Ltd. (NEXCO; former Japan Highway Public yield point constant steel, low pre-heating steel and so on.
Corporation). Among these, composite or non-composite Since my colleagues are going to talk about hybrid
two I-girder bridges are evaluated to be the most bridges in detail, in this chapter, I focus on the design
competitive alternative for bridges with a span from 40 code making activity at the Committee of Steel
Figure 3. Newly developed steel I-girder bridges Figure 4. Newly developed narrow-width box
box girder bridges
800
700
(Two I-girder)
600
500
(Three I-girder)
400
300
(Top-opened
200 box girder)
100
0
(Narrow-width
1
'95 6
'00 11
'05 16
'10 box girder)
(year)
Figure 5. Construction number of newly developed steel girder bridges
a b
web S355 S355
S450
Rubber support
a b lower flange
c d lower flange
S450 S355 S450
c-c d -d
double - composite type
Structures, one of technical investigation committee 3.3. Consideration on benefit from introduction of LSD
organized in Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) for hybrid bridges
and the benefit from LSD. EC (CEN, 2003, 2004) employed LSD and it is
thought that most of major work for bridge design code
3.2. Code making activity in JSCE was finished. In EC, the required or specified
In Japan, we have a legal design code (Japan Road performance such as safety and serviceability is checked
Association, 2003) for steel bridges issued from Japan and ensured by employing partial factor format.
Road Association, which has been based on Allowable AASHTO LRFD (AASHTO, 2005) is still partly under
Stress Design (ASD) method for more than 35 years. The improvement. The required performance at SLS
top cover of it is given in Fig.9. The revising work of it is (Serviceability Limit State) and ULS (Ultimate Limit
now under way, and it had been announced that LRFD State) is checked and ensured by LRF (Load and
method will be employed. However, regardless of Resistance Factor) format, so that it has been called
composite or non-composite girders, maximum flexure AASHTO LRFD.
strength will be limited less than yield stress or yield The following is typical ASD format ensuring safety
moment. against instability.
Fig.10 shows top cover of two volumes issued from
the Committee of Steel Structures of JSCE. One is the
h ( ult [ = 1.7]) (1)
M M
M u lt Mp
Mp
My My
Ma
M y / 1 .1 5 1 .2 0
M p / 1 .7
M u lt / 1 .7
Ma ASD
The following is typical formulae checking whether or Where, D is the dead load, L is the live load including
not the required performance is satisfied in AASHTO impact effect, D is the dead load excluding pavement
LRFD. (surface layer of concrete slab), DW is the load from
At SLS pavement.
1.0 D +1.3 L y (3) In eq.(4), when M ult . is defined to be equal to or less
or M 1.0 D +1.3 L M y (3) than M y (classified into slender section), since the
At ULS load factor in eq.(4) is larger than that in eq.(3), it is
M 1.25 D+1.50 DW +1.75 L M ult . (4) easily understood that the cross-sectional size will be
controlled by eq.(4) (at ULS).
Since non-composite welded-type plate girder has 4.2. SHM
normally thin web, in order to attain plastic moment, The collapse of the I-35W interstate bridge in Minnesota,
appropriate web stiffening is inevitable to prevent local United States in August 2007 shocked our communities.
buckling of the web after yielding. The employment of Recently, also in Japan, steel member fractures were
thick web is one choice. However, too thick web will found in the Kisogawa Ohashi Bridge (Fig.13(a)), Mie
result in less competitiveness (uneconomical). Even Prefecture, in June 2007 and in the the Honjo Ohashi
though the labor cost increases, welding many horizontal Bridge (Fig.13(b)), Akita Prefecture, in August 2007.
stiffeners to thin web subjected to compressive force is Although these incidents did not lead to collapse, it is
another choice. However, due to thin web, contribution pointed out not to have conducted enough frequent
of plastic moment from web will be minor, so that the inspection as a problem.
difference between M y and M P of the girder will of Before local governments plan highway roads repairs,
be minor. From this, it is easily understood that plastic they are needed to understand the integrity of existing
design for thin-walled and welding-type plate girder bridges. Although central government offer technical
bridges will not make sense. In case that plate girder supports such as lectures or guidelines to local
consisting of rolled section (web with small depth-to- governments not having inspection manuals, herein, as
thickness ratio, and the section is classified into one way to catching the current state of bridges,
compact section), plastic design will make sense. advanced structural health monitoring systems using
Furthermore, the ultimate flexural strength of composite laser devices are introduced.
girder under sagging bending moment is plastic moment The device introduced here is a Laser Doppler
( M P ), which is around 1.5 times yield moment ( M y ), so Vibrometer (LDV). This is an optical instrument
employing laser technology to measure velocity (Fig.14).
that plastic design also makes sense for composite girder In comparison with conventional transducers such as
under positive bending moment, and benefit from LSD accelerometers, LDV makes possible to conduct non-
will be promising. contact and long distance measurement without adding
In eq.(4), if DW is assumed to be 20% of total dead mass or stiffness to an object. And also, resolution of
load (D) and M ult . is set to be 1.3 M y (maximum M ult . velocity is very high, and frequency bandwidth is broad.
is limited to be less than 1.3 M y according to AASHTO Furthermore, by attaching a scanning unit on a laser
sensor head, measurement on multiple points can be
LRFD (AASHTO, 2005)), it can be rewritten as follows, realized.
M 1.25(0.8 D )+1.50(0.2 D )+1.75 L 1.3M y
4.2.1. Monitoring of a Shinkansen Steel Box Girder
M 1.3 D +1.75 L 1.3M y Bridge
M 1.0 D +1.35 L M y (5) Fatigue cracks were observed on several steel box
girder bridges that support the high-speed train networks
Comparing eq.(3) and eq.(5), it is known that both give
in Japan. These cracks appeared at the webs of the
nearly the same criteria.
bottom end of the vertical welded stiffeners. In order to
If we rewrite eq.(1) considering that the bridge is
investigate dynamic characteristics of the bridges, field
subjected to dead and live loads (h = 1.0), the followings
measurement of a selected bridge using LDVs was
are given.
conducted (Miyashita T. et. al., 2005).
1.0 D +1.0 L ( y 1.7 ) (6)
Measurement system consists of three scanning type
or M 1.7 D +1.7 L M y (6) LDVs and one single point type LDV (Fig.15). The
single point type LDV acquires reference signal that is
Comparing eq.(3) or (5) (AASHTO LRFD) and eq.(6)
used to calculate phases between measurement points in
(ASD), in case that the composite girder is subjected to
order to identify mode shapes. Ambient and train-
sagging bending moment, it is known that the larger
induced vibrations were measured before and after
cross-sectional size is necessary by eq.(1) (ASD),
retrofit measures at the bottom part of the vertical
resulting in less competitiveness. In Fig.12, schematic
stiffeners. As compared with conventional measurement
expression on the above explained difference is given.
works (Fig.16), this system can greatly reduce time
consuming task such as wiring cables.
4. Maintenance issues
Fig.17 shows identified mode shapes from the ambient
4.1. General
vibration measurement. Figs.17(a), (c) and (b), (d) show
As explained in Chapter 1, instead of new construction
the mode shapes before and after retrofit respectively. It
business, maintenance business is expected to increase,
is found that mode shapes are greatly different such as
and the development of new technology for maintenance
shown in Figs.17(a), (b) although natural frequencies of
work is now strongly requested. Herein, among
both modes are almost same.
maintenance related matters, SHMS, redundancy
analysis, weathering steel, and CFRP bonding are
explained, which is research topics being dealt with in 4.2.2. Monitoring of Shinkansen Concrete Viaducts
my laboratory. Integrity evaluation of Shikansen RC viaducts has been
conducted by the impact test using 30 kg mass. Global
a) The Kisogawa Ohashi
Bridge a) Single point type
Osaka
L13-14
L11-12
Tokyo L9-10
SLDV1
SLDV2 RLDV
SLDV3
Figure 15. Measurement system using LDVs Figure 16. Conventional measurement works
1st natural frequency of the viaduct and local one of a column and three on the main beam. Fig. 18 shows
column are utilized for the evaluation. However, there measurement system on the field. The system was set up
are several demerits in this method. It requires time at about 30 m from the viaducts. Once all measurement
consuming dangerous works at high level. And also, it is point coordinates were measured by scanning system,
sometimes difficult to access the viaduct itself after vibration measurements were carried out continuously.
disaster such as earthquake. Therefore, a new monitoring After eliminating the effect of external disturbances,
technique using LDVs in order to replace conventional global mode shapes of a viaduct were identified using
technique was investigated (Hernandez J. Jr., et. al., peak-picking method. Identified natural frequencies of
2006). the viaduct were 2.833Hz, 2.933Hz and 3.033Hz. Fig.19
Due to large stiffness of RC viaduct, amplitude level shows identified mode shapes coinciding with each
of ambient vibration becomes very low. Moreover, natural frequency. Although the mode shape at 3.033Hz
vibration of a LDVs tripod resulting from external corresponds to the one in lateral direction, it is difficult
disturbances such as ground vibration affects to interpret the mode shapes at 2.833Hz and 2.933Hz.
measurement accuracy. In order to eliminate external Detailed investigation revealed that they were a
disturbances, a high accurate servo type velocimeter was combination of torsional and lateral modes. This can be
put on the LDV. The velocimeter measures the vibration explained by dynamic structural interaction between
of the LDV itself. In analysis, velocity measured by the adjoining viaducts due to the presence of the continuous
velocimeter is subtracted from LDV results. rails.
During on-site measurements, a total of 11 points on
the surface of an RC viaduct were selected: two per
Figure 17. Mode shapes of three lower flanges
a) 2.833 Hz
b) 2.933 Hz
c) 3.033 Hz
Figure 18. Vibration measurement of Figure 19. Global mode shapes of a viaduct
concrete viaducts (: Measurement points, : Mode shapes)
4.2.3. Remote Non-contact Monitoring System for Long- prisms for surveying at measurement points extended
span Bridges measurement distance drastically. One of the effective
When a measurement point is far away from a LDV, it is applications of this system is to measure tensile forces of
difficult to hit laser beam to the point on-site. In order to many cables in a long-span bridge since tensile forces of
improve this difficulty, a remote non-contact monitoring cables are usually identified from their natural
system (Fig.20), which is the combination of a LDV and frequencies by vibration measurement, which requires
a total station (TS) for surveying, is under development time and cost for setting up of equipments.
(Miyashita T., et. al., 2007). In order to check the effectiveness, measurement test
This system makes possible to conduct automated was carried out at the Tatara Bridge. The outline of the
remote vibration measurement continuously due to test is shown in Fig.21 and Table 1. The maximum
internal storage of the coordinates of measurement points measurement distance was about 970m. The test started
and mechanical rotation of the LDV together with the TS. at 15:00 PM, and was repeated 13 times at each
Previous investigation revealed that the utilization of measurement point until 9:00 AM on the next day.
Laptop
LDV
Control Box
Focus TS
Controller
Rotating motor
Terminal stand
Table 1. Measurement points and distances Table 2. Identified 1st natural frequencies
South side
For Ehime For Hiroshima
Pedestrian side
C42
C32 The prism was set up
C21 C11 C1
in each point.
3P G4 P
G3 G1
The temperature is measured G2 2P Longest Farthest
Distance 970.857m
Anchor truss
R = N/NP
V. member R=0.885
Anchor truss Virtual brokenD. member
Figure 25. Measurement of flying salt Figure 26. FEA under flying salt
(mm)
25
100 25
6)Finish painting 100 : required min. bonding length
Steel member 25 : optimal dislocation length
Figure 27. Proposition of CFRP bonding to Figure 28. Proposed adhesion manner
corroded steel plates
250mm
Steel plate
b) Finished
Figure 29. FEA of steel plate with CFRP bonding Figure 30. CFRP bonding at actual truss bridges