EE-211 Linear Circuit Analysis: Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher

EE-211 Linear Circuit Analysis
Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, TOPI 23460
hadeed@giki.edu.pk
November 21, 2017
Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher (FEE, GIKI) Week 10 Resources November 21, 2017 1 / 34
Overview
1 Energy storage elements

Capacitor
Example
Energy stored in a capacitor
Series and parallel combinations
Inductor
Example
Energy stored in an inductor
Series and parallel combinations
Initial conditions in a switched circuit
RC OP-AMP circuits
Dierentiator
Integrator
Summary
Energy Storage elements
Circuits with energy storage elements are dynamic circuits and have the
following attributes.
1
They can store energy.
2
They have memory. The instantaneous element voltage and current
depends not only on the applied voltage and current but also on the
previous values of element voltage and current.
Types of Energy Storage elements
1
Two basic types of energy storage elements are Capacitors and Inductors.
2
Capacitors and inductors connected in series or in parallel can be reduced
to an equivalent capacitor or inductor without having any change on the
circuit parameters.
3
Capacitors and inductors can be connected in an op-amp circuit to perform
integration and dierentiation.
Capacitors
A capacitor can be constructed with two parallel conducting plates
separated by a distance d.
Figure: Richard C. Dorf, James A. Svoboda-Introduction to Electric

Circuits-Wiley (2013)
Electric charge is stored on these plates.

The gap within the plates is lled with a dielectric e.g impregnated paper,
mica, ceremics or even air.
Capacitors
Charge stored on the capacitor is proportional to the capacitor voltage v(t),
therefore
q (t ) = Cv (t ) (1)
Capacitors are designated with a term called capacitance (C).

Capacitance is a measure of the ability of the device to store energy in the
form of a separated charge or an electric eld.
We know that current is the rate of ow of charge. Thus,
d
i (t ) = C v (t ) (2)
dt
Eq. (2) refers to an important fact i.e if the voltage across a capacitor is to
be changed, an innite current is required. Therefore,
Fact
Voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
Capacitors
Integrating 2 in terms of current i(t) will produce the expression for voltage
v(t),
t
Z
1
v (t ) = i (t )dt (3)
C
Usually the value of current at is not known however, the value of

current just before the transition in voltage is known. Therefore, (3) can be
expressed as
t
Z
1
v (t ) = i (t )dt + v (t ) (4)
C t o
o
Where, to is called the initial time and v (to ) is called the initial condition.
Example 7.2-1 DORF
For the voltage shown across a
1mF capacitor, nd the current.
i(t)=0 for t 0
2 for 0
i(t)=10 t1
i(t)=10
2 for t2
i(t)=0 for t2
v(t)=0 for t 0
v(t)=10t for 0 t1
v(t)=20-10t for t2
v(t)=0 for t 2 The value of
current can be calculated by
derivating the voltage v with
respect to time.
Example 7.2-2 DORF
Find the voltage v(t) across a
0.5F capacitor, if the current is as
follows. Capacitor has no initial v(t)=0 for t 0
charge v(t)=0V for t 0. v(t)= t
for 0 t 1
2
v(t)=2t 1 for t 2
v(t)=3V for t 2
i(t)=0 for t 0
i(t)=t for 0 t1
i(t)=1 for t2
i(t)=0 for t 2 The value of
voltage can be calculated by
integrating the current using (4).
Energy storage in a Capacitors
Energy stored is the integration of power over time.
t
Z
wc (t ) = v (t )i (t )dt (5)

Using the expression for current
1
wc = Cv 2
(6)
2
Note that capacitor does not dissipate energy. The energy stored by an
ideal capacitor will remain forever if no external device is connected.
The charge on a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
v (0+ ) = v (0 ) (7)
Where, the t = 0 is just before the switching at t=0 and t = 0+ is just

after the switching. Time between these instants is negligible.
Example 7.3-1 DORF
A 10mF capacitor is charged to 100 V, as shown in the circuit below. Find

the energy stored by the capacitor and the voltage of the capacitor at
t = 0+ after the switch is opened.
At t = 0 , capacitor voltage is 100V. Therefore, V (0 )=100V and

because the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously
therefore, V (0+ )=100V. Energy stored by the capacitor using eq. (6)=50J
Parallel combination
For a parallel connection as shown i =i 1 + i2 + i3
Using eq.(2) it can be expressed as
dv dv dv
i =C + C2 + C3 (8)
1
dt dt dt
Because the voltage is same therefore
dv
i = (C + C2 + C3 ) (9)
1
dt
Eq. (11) implies that capacitors simply add up when connected in parallel.
Series combinations
For a series connection as shown v =v 1 + v2 + v3 + ...vn

t t t t
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
v= idt +v (t
0 )+ idt +v (t 0 )+ idt +v (t 0 )+ idt +vn(t
C 1 t o C 2 t o C 3 t o C
n t o
0
(10)
Because the current is same therefore
n Z t
1
v= idt + v( t
X
) (11)
n =1
Cn t o
0
For a two capacitor series connection
CC
Cs = 1 2
(12)
C +C1 2
Example Exercise 7.4-1 DORF
For a connection as shown nd C eq .
Answer=4mF
Inductor
Inductors work on the phenomenon of magnetic elds.

Varying current produces varying magnetic eld.
A varying magnetic eld produces voltage in the conductor linked by that
eld.
The parameters of inductor relates that induced voltage with the current.
Inductor is a device that stores charge in the form of magnetic eld and
opposes any sudden change in current.
The inductance is symbolized by the letter L.
Inductance depends on size, materials and construction method of
magnetic core.
Inductor
Inductance is the measure of the ability of a device to store energy in the
form of magnetic eld.
An inductor can be constructed by winding a coil of wire around a
magnetic core.
d
v (t ) = L i (t ) (13)
dt
Eq. (13) refers to the voltage across an inductor.
Inductor
Integrating the (13) we get,
t
Z
1
i (t ) = v (t )dt (14)
L
However, the current at negative innity is usually not known therefore, we

can split the (14) as
Z to Z t
1 1
i (t ) = v (t )dt + v (t )dt (15)
L L t o
t
Z
1
i (t ) = i (t )+ v (t )dt (16)
o
L t o
Thus, to nd the total current through an inductor, initial current through
the inductor is required. The time t
o is called initial time and inductor
current i (t o) is called initial current. Current cannot change
instantaneously because it would require innite voltage to do so.
Example 7.5-1 DORF
For the current of 20 te 2t
through a 0.1H inductor, nd the

voltage. i(0)=0A.
Voltage is equal to 2 v at t=0
di d
v (t ) = L = 0.1 (20te 2t
) = 2(2te 2t +e 2t ) = 2e 2t (12t )V
dt dt
(17)
Energy storage in an inductor
Energy stored is the integration of power over time.
t
Z
wc (t ) = v (t )i (t )dt (18)

Using the expression for voltage
1
wc = Li 2
(19)
2
Note that inductor does not dissipate energy. The energy stored by an ideal
inductor will remain forever if no external device is connected.
The current in an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
i (0+ ) = i (0 ) (20)
Where, the t = 0 is just before the switching at t=0 and t = 0+ is just

after the switching. Time between these instants is negligible.
Example 7.6-2 DORF
Find the power and energy for an inductor of 0.1H when the current and
voltage have following values. i=0 and v=0 for t<0
i=20t and v=2 for 0 t 1
i=20 and v=0 for 1 t
Verify the voltage using eq.(13). Then power is simply the product of
voltage and current. P=vi=40t W for 0 t 1.
Energy can be calculated through eq.(19 and is = 0.05(20 t ) for 0 t 1
2
and 0.05(20)
2
for 1 t .
Parallel combination
For a parallel connection as shown i =i 1 + i2 + i3

t t t t
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
i= vdt +i (t )+ vdt +i (t )+ vdt +i (t )+ vdt +i (t )
L 1 t o
0
L2 t o
0
L 3 t o
0
L
n t o
n 0
(21)
Because the voltage is same therefore
1 1 1 dv1
i =( + + + ) (22)
L 1 L2 L 3 L dtn
For a two inductors connected in parallel
LL
Lp = 1 2
(23)
L
1 + L2
Series combinations
For a series connection as shown v =v 1 + v2 + v3 + ...vn
di di di di
v =L + L2 + L3 ......L (24)
1
dt dt dt n
dt
Because the current is same therefore
n
di
v= L
X
(25)
n =1
n
dt
Equivalent inductance procedure is just like resistors when connected in
series.
Example Exercise 7.7-1 DORF
For a connection as shown nd L eq .
Answer=9mH
Initial conditions in a switched circuit
The circuits have one or more switches that open or close at time t . All
0
analysis is done as per this time instant therefore, t is the time just before
o
the switch is operated and t + is the time just after the switch is operated.
o
A switched circuit has at least one capacitor or inductor.

We assume that the circuit switches are in their position for a long time
before t0.
a long time before t0" means that the circuit is in steady state .
If a dc circuit is in a steady state condition,
Capacitor is an open circuit
Inductor is a short circuit
Example 7.8-1 DORF
Prior to t=0, the switch has been closed for a long time. Determine the
values of the capacitor voltage and inductor current immediately after the
switch opens at time t=0.
10
i
L (0 ) = = 2A (26)
5
3 10
v C (0 ) = = 6V (27)
Before the switch opens at t = 0 , 5
Because the voltage across a

the circuit is at steady state. So
capacitor cannot change
Capacitor will act like an open
instantaneously and also the current
circuit, and the inductor will act like
in an inductor cannot change
a short circuit. Therefore, before t=0
abruptly therefore,
the equivalent circuit is as follows.
V C (0+ ) = VC (0 ) = 6V (28)
i
L (0+ ) = iL (0 ) = 2A (29)
Example 7.8-2 DORF
i
(0+ ), Vc (0+ ), dvCdt(0 ) , and diLdt
+ (0 )+
Find L for the circuit shown. Assume
steady-state conditions prevail at t = 0

i L (0 ) = 0 (30)
Before the switch opens at t=

0 ,
vC (0 ) = 2V (31)
the circuit is at steady state. So
Capacitor will act like an open As capacitor opposes change in
circuit, and the inductor will act like voltage and inductor in current,
a short circuit. Therefore, before t=0

the equivalent circuit is as follows.
i L (0+ ) = 0 (32)
vC (0+ ) = 2V (33)
Example 7.8-2 DORF
To nd
dv C (0+ ) ,
dt
and L (0+ ) we throw
di
dt
the switch at t=0 and redraw the Applying KVL for the right side mesh
circuit as
vL vC + 1iL = 0 (38)
Therefore, at t = 0+
v L (0+ ) = vC (0+ ) iL (0+ )1 = 2V
(39)
dv Therefore,
i =C
C
(34)
C
dt
di (0+ ) A
dv (0+ ) i (0+ )
L
= 2 (40)
C
=
C
(35) dt s
dt C
di Apply KCL at node A to nd the iC
v =L L
(36)
dt L
v 10
dv (0 ) v (0+ )
+ i
C + iL +
c
=0 (41)
L L 2
= (37)
dt L
Example 7.8-2 DORF
At t = 0+
10 vC (0+ )
iC (0+ ) = iL (0+ ) = 6 0 = 6A (42)
2
Therefore,
dv (0 + ) i (0+ ) 6
= 12V /s
C C
= = (43)
dt C 0.5
Summary : At time t=0, the current in the inductor and the voltage of the
capacitor remained constant. However, the inductor voltage did change
instantaneously from 0-2V. Also the current through a capacitor changed
from 0-6 A. Also, the rate of change of voltage across a capacitor id 12
V/s and the rate of change of current in inductor is -2A/s.
RC OP-AMP circuits
Inverting amplier resistances can be replaced by a capacitor to form an

integrator or a dierentiator.
Replacing R 1 with a capacitor makes Replacing R f with a capacitor makes
a dierentiator circuit. an integrator circuit.
Dierentiator
dv (t )
v (t ) = R C 1
(46)
o 2 1
dt
This means that the output of this
The circuit equations are as follows.
op-amp circuit is proportional to the
First, apply KCL at negative terminal
derivative of the input.
of op-amp
Therefore, this circuit is called a
V V Cd (V V ) dierentiator.
i + o
+
1
(44)
R 2 dt
V V Cd (V V )
i = o
+
1
(45)
R 2 dt
However, V =
Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher 0 and
(FEE, i
GIKI) = 0, Week 10 Resources November 21, 2017 30 / 34
Integrator
However, V = 0 and i = 0,
therefore
V dv
= C2
1 o
(49)
R
1 dt
t
1
Z
v (t ) = v (x )dx (50)
o
RC
1 2
1
t
1
Z
The circuit equations are as follows.
v (t ) = v (x )dx (51)
First, apply KCL at negative terminal
o
RC 1 2 0
1
of op-amp
This means that the output of this
V V Cd (V V ) op-amp circuit is proportional to the

i + 1
+
o
(47) integral of the input voltage.
R 1 dt
Therefore, this circuit is called an
V 1 V Cd (V V )
i = +
o
(48)
integrator.
R 1 dt
Summary
Figure: Ref:M.E Van Valkenburg, 1955 Network analysis" Prentice Hall.
Summary
Figure: Ref: M.E Van Valkenburg, 1955 Network analysis" Prentice Hall.
Summary
Figure: Ref: Dorf, R.C. and Svoboda, J.A., 2010.Introduction to electric circuits.
John Wiley and Sons.

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EE-211 Linear Circuit Analysis

Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher

November 21, 2017

1 Energy storage elements

Figure: Richard C. Dorf, James A. Svoboda-Introduction to Electric

Electric charge is stored on these plates.

Capacitors are designated with a term called capacitance (C).

Usually the value of current at is not known however, the value of

Using the expression for current

Where, the t = 0 is just before the switching at t=0 and t = 0+ is just

A 10mF capacitor is charged to 100 V, as shown in the circuit below. Find

At t = 0 , capacitor voltage is 100V. Therefore, V (0 )=100V and

Using eq.(2) it can be expressed as

Using eq.(4) it can be expressed as

For a two capacitor series connection

For a connection as shown nd C eq .

Inductors work on the phenomenon of magnetic elds.

However, the current at negative innity is usually not known therefore, we

For the current of 20 te 2t

through a 0.1H inductor, nd the

Using the expression for voltage

Where, the t = 0 is just before the switching at t=0 and t = 0+ is just

Using eq.(14) it can be expressed as

For a two inductors connected in parallel

Using eq.(13) it can be expressed as

For a connection as shown nd L eq .

A switched circuit has at least one capacitor or inductor.

Capacitor is an open circuit

Inductor is a short circuit

Because the voltage across a

Before the switch opens at t=

a short circuit. Therefore, before t=0

Inverting amplier resistances can be replaced by a capacitor to form an

V V Cd (V V ) op-amp circuit is proportional to the

Figure: Ref:M.E Van Valkenburg, 1955 Network analysis" Prentice Hall.

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For a connection as shown nd C eq .

Inductors work on the phenomenon of magnetic elds.

However, the current at negative innity is usually not known therefore, we

through a 0.1H inductor, nd the

For a connection as shown nd L eq .

Inverting amplier resistances can be replaced by a capacitor to form an

Figure: Ref:M.E Van Valkenburg, 1955 Network analysis" Prentice Hall.