Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3
Design for flexure (LSM)
I. Limit State Design
Limit state design of an engineering structure must ensure that:
1. Under the worst loadings the structure is safe.
2. During normal working condition the deformation of the members does not detract from the
appearance, durability or performance of the structure.
Two principal types of limit state:
1. Ultimate Limit State
This requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with an adequate factor of safety
against collapse, the loads for which it is designed to ensure the safety of the building occupants
and/or the safety of the structure itself.
2. Serviceability Limit States
This correspond to states beyond which specified service requirement are no longer met.
1. Deflection - the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must not be
adversely affected by deflection nor should the comfort of the building users be adversely affected.
2. Cracking local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the appearance and
efficiency and durability of the structure.
II. Characteristic Material Strengths & Characteristic Loads
Characteristic Material Strength
- The strengths of the materials upon which a design is based are normally, those strength
below which results are unlikely to fall.
Characteristic Actions
Action F is a force (load) applied to the structure (direct action) or imposed deformation (indirect
action) for example, temperature effects or settlement.
Classification of Actions:
a) By variation in time
i) Permanent Actions (G) e.g. self-weight
ii) Variable Actions (Q) e.g. imposed load
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iii) Accidental Actions
b) By thier spatial variation
i) Fixed Actions e.g. self-weight
ii) Free Actions e.g. movable imposed loads
III. Partial Factor of Safety for Materials ( )
The following factors are considered when selecting a suitable value for :
1. The Strength of the materials in an actual member. This strength will differ from that measured in
a carefully prepared test specimen and it is particularly true for concrete where placing, compaction
and curing are so important to the strength.
2. The severity of the limit state being considered. Thus, higher values are taken for the ultimate
limit state than for the serviceability limit state.
Table 1 Partial factors of safety applied to materials ( )
Persistent and Transient Accidental

Limit State
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Concrete Reinforcing Steel
Ultimate
Flexure 1.50 1.15 1.20 1.00
Shear 1.50 1.15 1.20 1.00
Bond 1.50 1.15 1.20 1.00
Serviceability 1.00 1.00
IV. Partial Factor of Safety for Action ( )
Errors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes:
1. Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation;
2. Possible unusual increases in the magnitude of the actions;
3. Unforeseen stress redistribution;
4. Constructional inaccuracies.
Table 2 Partial safety factors at the ultimate limit state
Persistent or Permanent actions Leading variable action Leading variable action

transient design (Gk) (Qk-1) (Qk-i)
situation
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable
(a) For checking
the static
equilibrium of a 1.10 0.90 1.50 0.00 1.50 0.00
building
structure
(b) For the
design of
structural
members 1.35 1.00 1.50 0.00 1.50 0.00
(excluding
geotechnical
actions)
(c) As an
alternative to
(a) and (b)
above to design
for both
1.35 1.15 1.50 0.00 1.50 0.00
situations with
one set of
calculations
Table 2 Partial safety factors at the serviceability limit state
Design Situation Permanent Actions Variable Actions

All 1.0 1.0
V. Analysis of the Section
Figure 1. Parabolic-rectagular stress-strain diagram for concrete in compression:
0.85
Figure 2. Short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement:
Within the elastic range, the relationship between the stress and strain is
= (1)
The design yield strain is
At the ultimate limit for = 500 /
= 200000 = 0.00217
.
Figure 3. Section with strain diagram and stress blocks:
Figure 3 shows the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and the resultant strain
diagram, together with three different types of stress distribution in the concrete:
1. The triangle stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly proportional to the
strain, which generally occurs at the loading levels encountered under working condition and is,
therefore used at the serviceability limit state.
2. The rectangular-parabolic stress block represent the distribution at failure when the compressive
strains are within the plastic range, and it is associated with the design for the ultimate limit state.
3. The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular-parabolic

distribution
The relationship between the depth of neutral axis (x) and the maximum concrete strain ( ) and
the steel strains are given by:
= (2)
= (3)
Where d is the effective depth of the beam and d is the depth of the compression reinforcement.
For analysis of a section with known steel strains, the depth of the neutral axis can be determined by
= (4)
At the ultimate limit state the maximum compressive strain in the concrete is taken as
= 0.0035 50/60
For steel with = 500 / the yield strain = 0.00217. Inserting this values for and
into equation (6)
= = 0.617
0.00217
1+
0.0035
Hence to ensure yielding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state:
0.617
At the ultimate limit state it is important that member sections in flexure should be ductile and that
failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by a sudden catastrophic
compression failure of the concrete.
Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that redistribution of
maximum moment can occur, resulting in a safer and more economical structure.
To ensure rotation of the plastic hinges with sufficient yielding of the tension steel and also to allow
for other factors such as the strain hardening of the steel, it is recommended that
0.45 50/60
Figure 4. Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block:
For equilibrium, the ultimate design moment, M, must be balanced by the moment of resistance of
the section so that
= = (5)
Where z the lever arm between the resultant forces and

= 0.567
= /2 (6)
Substituting equation (8) and (9) in equation (7) gives
= 1.134 ( ) (7)
Rearranging and substituting = :
( ) ( ) + 1.134 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation:
= 0.5 + (0.25 1.134) (8)
In equation (7)
= = 1.15
= 0.87
Hence
= (9)
.
Table 3. Lever-arm Table
K=M/bd2fck 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11

la=z/d 0.954 0.945 0.934 0.924 0.913 0.902 0.891
K=M/bd2fck 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.167

la=z/d 0.880 0.868 0.856 0.843 0.830 0.820
Figure 5. Lever-arm Curve
VI. The Balanced Section
Depth of neutral axis for balanced singly reinforced section is
= 0.45
The depth of the stress block is
= 0.8 = 0.36
The force in the concrete stress block is
= 0.567 = 0.204
For equilibrium the force in concrete must be balanced by the force in steel
= 0.87 = = 0.204
Therefore
= 0.234 /
Percentage for balance section is

100
= 23.4
for = 25 and = 500 then steel percentage for balanced section is

100
= 1.17
The ultimate moment of resistance for a balanced section is
=
where
=
2
Substituting and then
= 0.167 (10)
and
= 0.167 =
When the design moment is such that > = 0.167 then the section cannot be singly
reinforced and compression reinforcing steel is required in the compression zone of the section.
Example 1.) Design of a singly reinforced rectangular section
The ultimate design moment to be resisted by the rectangular section with a width (b) of 260 mm
and an effective depth (d) of 440 mm is 185 . . Determine the area of tension reinforcement
( ) required given the characteristic material strengths are = 500 and =
25 .
185 10
= = = 0.147 < 0.167
25 260 440
Therefore compression steel is not required, and the lever arm is
0.147
= 0.5 + 0.25 = 440 0.5 + 0.25 = 373
1.134 1.134
Area of steel is
185 10
= = = 1140
0.87 0.87 500 373
VII. Analysis equations for a singly reinforced section
In figure 4 for equilibrium, the compressive force in the concrete and tensile force in steel are equal.
= or 0.567 = 0.87
Therefore depth of the stress block is

.
= and = (11)
. .
Therefore the moment of resistance of the section is
=
= 0.87 ( 2)
.
= 0.87 (12)
.
These equations assume the tension reinforcement has yielded, which will be the case if <
0.617 . If this is not the case, the problem would require solving by trying successive values of x
until = with the steel strain and hence stresses will be determined instead of 0.87 .
Example 2. Analysis of a singly reinforced rectangular section in bending
Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown below, given that the
characteristic strengths are = 500 for the reinforcement and = 25 for
the concrete.
For equilibrium of the compressive and tensile forces on the section
=
Therefore
0.567 = 0.87
0.567 25 300 = 0.87 500 1470
Therefore
= 150 and = 0.80 = 188

This value of x is less than the value of 0.617d and therefore the steel has yielded and = 0.87
as assumed.
Moment of resistance of the section is
=
= 0.87 ( 2 )
= 0.87 500 1470 (520 1502) 10

= 284
VIII. Rectangular section in bending with compression reinforcement at the ultimate limit state
For singly reinforced with concrete class not greater than C50/60 when > 0.167 the
design moment of resistance of the concrete ( ) and therefore compression reinforcement is
required. For this condition the depth of neutral axis is < 0.45 , the maximum allowed by the
code. Therefore
0.8
= 2 = = 0.8 0.45 /2
2
= 0.82
For the equilibrium of the section
= +
So that with the reinforcement at yield
0.87 = 0.567 + 0.87
Or with
= 0.8 0.45 = 0.36
0.87 = 0.204 + 0.87 (12)
Taking moment about the centroid of the tension steel,
= + ( )
= 0.204 0.82 + 0.87 ( )
= 0.167 + 0.87 ( ) (14)
From equation (14)
.
= ( )
(15)
.
Multiplying both sides of equation (12)
.
= + (16)
.
Hence the areas of compression steel and tension steel can be calculated from equation (14) and
(15), then substituting = 0.167 and =
( )
= ( )
(17)
.
= + (18)
.
In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yielded so that the steel stress
= 0.87 . From stress-strain distribution diagram
.
= (19)

=
0.0035

=1
0.0035
For steel stress = 500 / the strain = = 0.00217.
Therefore for yielding of the compression steel
.
<1 < 0.38 (20)
.
Or with = 0.45
< 0.171 (21)
If > 0.171 then it is necessary to calculate the strain from equation (19) and then
determine from equation (1).
= 200000
This value of stress for the compressive steel must be then be used in the denominator of equation
(15) in place of 0.87 to calculate the area .
.
= + (16)
. .
The above equations apply for the case where the concrete class is less than or equal to C50/60.
For concrete classes greater than C50/60 similar equations with different constant, can be derived.
Constant for concretes up to class C50/60 are tabulated in table 4.
Table 4. Limiting Constant Values
Constant Values Concrete Class C50/60

Limiting xbal/d 0.45
Maximum zbal 0.82d
Limiting K = Kbal 0.167
Limiting d'/d 0.171
Maximum % steel area = 100Abal/bd 23.4fck/fyk
Example 3. Design of rectangular section with compression reinforcement
The section shown below is to resist an ultimate design moment of 285 kN.m. The characteristic
2 2
material strengths are = 500 / and = 25 / . Determine the areas of
reinforcement required.
Solution:
285 10
=
25 260 440
= 0.226 > 0.167
Therefore compression steel is required
50
= = 0.11 < 0.171
440
Therefore the compression steel yielded.
Compression steel:
( )
=
0.87 ( )
(0.226 0.167) 25 260 440

=
0.87 500 (440 50)
= 438
Tension steel:
= +
0.87
0.167 25 260 440

= + 438 = 1339 + 438
0.87 500 (0.82 440)
= 1777
Example 4. Analysis of a doubly reinforced rectangular section
Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure below. Given that
the characteristic strengths are = 500 / and = 25 / for the concrete.
Solution:
From Equilibrium,
= +
Assuming initially that the steel stresses and equal to design yield values, then
0.87 = 0.567 + 0.87
Solving for s
0.87 ( )
=
0.567
0.87 500 (2410 628)
=
0.567 25 280
= 195
= = 244
0.8
Check if the tension steel has yielded
244
= = 0.48 < 0.617
510
Check if the compression steel has yielded
50
= = 0.22 < 0.38
225
Taking moment about the tension steel
= + ( )
2
= 0.567 + 0.87 ( )
2
195
= 0.567 25 280 195 510 + 0.87 500 620(510 50) 10
2
= 319 + 124 = 443
If the tensile and compressive steel had not yielded, it would be necessary to solve for x.
The steel stresses at balanced section would be used.

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Chapter 3

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CHAPTER 3

Design for flexure (LSM)

I. Limit State Design

Limit state design of an engineering structure must ensure that:

1. Under the worst loadings the structure is safe.

Two principal types of limit state:

1. Ultimate Limit State

2. Serviceability Limit States

II. Characteristic Material Strengths & Characteristic Loads

Characteristic Material Strength

i) Permanent Actions (G) e.g. self-weight

ii) Variable Actions (Q) e.g. imposed load

b) By thier spatial variation

i) Fixed Actions e.g. self-weight

ii) Free Actions e.g. movable imposed loads

III. Partial Factor of Safety for Materials ( )

Table 1 Partial factors of safety applied to materials ( )

Persistent and Transient Accidental

IV. Partial Factor of Safety for Action ( )

Errors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes:

1. Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation;

2. Possible unusual increases in the magnitude of the actions;

3. Unforeseen stress redistribution;

Persistent or Permanent actions Leading variable action Leading variable action

Table 2 Partial safety factors at the serviceability limit state

Design Situation Permanent Actions Variable Actions

V. Analysis of the Section

Figure 1. Parabolic-rectagular stress-strain diagram for concrete in compression:

The design yield strain is

At the ultimate limit for = 500 /

Figure 3. Section with strain diagram and stress blocks:

3. The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular-parabolic

Where z the lever arm between the resultant forces and

Substituting equation (8) and (9) in equation (7) gives

Rearranging and substituting = :

Solving the quadratic equation:

= 0.5 + (0.25 1.134) (8)

K=M/bd2fck 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11

K=M/bd2fck 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.167

Figure 5. Lever-arm Curve

VI. The Balanced Section

Depth of neutral axis for balanced singly reinforced section is

Percentage for balance section is

for = 25 and = 500 then steel percentage for balanced section is

The ultimate moment of resistance for a balanced section is

Example 1.) Design of a singly reinforced rectangular section

Therefore depth of the stress block is

Therefore the moment of resistance of the section is

Example 2. Analysis of a singly reinforced rectangular section in bending

For equilibrium of the compressive and tensile forces on the section

0.567 25 300 = 0.87 500 1470

= 150 and = 0.80 = 188

Moment of resistance of the section is

= 0.87 500 1470 (520 1502) 10

0.87 = 0.567 + 0.87

= 0.8 0.45 = 0.36

Taking moment about the centroid of the tension steel,

= 0.204 0.82 + 0.87 ( )

= 0.167 + 0.87 ( ) (14)

From equation (14)

Multiplying both sides of equation (12)

For steel stress = 500 / the strain = = 0.00217.

Therefore for yielding of the compression steel