Experiment-1

Aim: To study a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) kit and use it in a simple
experimental set up to measure a small displacement

Apparatus: LVDT kit, multimeter.

Theory:

Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) are the most widely used transducers. They
are used to measure displacement directly as a sensing element in a number of situations
involving motion. LVDTs can resolve very small displacements. Their high resolution, high
accuracy, and good stability make them an ideal device for applications involving short
displacement measurements.
LVDTs consist of one primary winding, P1, and two secondary windings, S1 and S2. Each is
wound on a cylindrical former with rod-shaped magnetic cores positioned centrally inside the
coil assemblies. This provides a dedicated path for the magnetic flux linking the coils. An
oscillating excitation voltage is applied to the primary coil. The current through the primary creates
voltages in secondary windings. The ferromagnetic core concentrates the magnetic field. If the
core is closer to one of the secondary coils, the voltage in that coil will be higher.
Let the output of the secondary winding S1 be Es1 and that of S2 be Es2. When the core is at its
normal null position, equal voltages are induced in each coil. When these two outputs are
connected in phase opposition, as shown in Figure, the magnitude of the resultant voltage will be
zero. This is known as the null position, and the output Es1 will be equal to Es2. As the moving
core is displaced, the mutual inductance between the fixed coils changes. The LVDT outputs a
bipolar voltage proportional to displacement. The output voltage is positive and gives no indication
of the direction in which the core has been moved. Proper signal conditioners can be designed to
give indication of the direction.

Figure Schematic of Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

 Procedure:
1. Adjust the experimental setup for probe to zero position.
2. Verify all electrical connections.
3. Give the LVDT power supply on.
4. Record the displacement and output voltage.

Observations:

Displacement(mm) Voltage difference Displacement(mm) Voltage difference

0 -0.05 -1 -0.01
1 -0.07 -2 0.00
2 -0.10 -3 0.04
3 -0.13 -4 0.07
4 -0.16 -5 0.10
5 -0.19 -6 0.13
6 -0.22 -7 0.16
7 -0.25 -8 0.19
8 -0.28 -9 0.22
9 -0.31 -10 0.25
10 -0.34
 Experiment-2

Aim: To find value of unknown resistor using Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Apparatus: Breadboard, Multimeter, Resistors, Connecting Wires, DC Voltage

Source

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
A bridge is a special class of circuits that can be used for measuring resistance, capacitance,
or inductance. A resistance bridge is especially useful when a very accurate measurement of a
resistance is required. The Wheatstone bridge or four arm bridge, invented by C. Wheatstone
in 1843, is the most widely used resistance bridge for measuring resistance values above 1 .
A Wheatstone bridge consists of a voltage source and two parallel voltage dividers, as shown
in figure. The bridge is said to be balanced when Vab=0. For the balanced condition, the voltage
is divided in the path containing resistors R1 and R3 in the same ratio as in the path containing
resistors R2 and Rx, which allows the unknown resistance Rx to be determined in terms of R1,
R2 and R2.
We can find Rx in terms of R1, R2 and R3 as follows. Using the voltage divider relation,
R3
Va = .Vin
R1+R3

Rx
Vb = .Vin
R2+Rx

For the balanced condition, Vab =0 or Va=Vb. Equating the above expressions for Va and Vb
gives
R3 Rx
=
R1+R3 R2+Rx
R1. Rx = R2. R3
R2.R3
Rx =
R1
In order to achieve balance for a specific unknown resistance Rx, let R1 and R2 have fixed,
known values, and let R3 be a calibrated (adjustable) resistor/ potentiometer. The procedure is
to adjust R3 until Vab=0, and then use the expression derived above to determine Rx.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit on a breadboard.
2. Vary the value of potentiometer R3 to get Vab=0.
3. Remove the potentiometer from the circuit and measure the resistive value of
potentiometer, Repeat same experiment for 3 different unknown value resistors.

Observations:
R1=0.677 k, R2=0.55 k , Vin=5V
Unknown Potentiometer Calculated R3(k) error
Resistor Value
Rx1 0.839 k 0.833 k 0.677 k 0.006
Rx2 2.436 k 2.425 k 2 k 0.011
Rx3 6.24 k 6.154 k 5 k 0.086

Result:
The given configuration of the Wheatstone bridge used to find unknown resistance value.