When the square wave generator switching frequency is much higher than the either

signal frequency, bits of each signal are alternately presented to the oscilloscopes vertical
input to reproduce the two signals on the screen.
R, controls the position. The signals on the screen can be overlapped, for the eas),
co III pa rison.

Dual trace CRO Dual beam CRO

1. One electron beam is used to generate two Two electron beams are used.
traces.

2. One vertical amplifier is used. Two vertical amplifiers are used.

3. The two signals are not displayed The two signals are displayed simultaneously.
simultaneously in real time but appears to be
displayed simultaneously.

4. Same beam is shared between the two Signals Two separate beam~ are used hence easy to
hence difficult to switch quickly between the switch between the traces.
traces.

5. As two signals are displayed separately, the The two signals must have same frequency or
signals may have different frequencies. their frequencies must be integer multiples of
each other.

6. The size and weight is less. The size and weight is more.

7. Cannot be operated at fast speeds hence two Can be operated at very high speed hence two
separate fast transient signals can not be separate fast transient signals can be easily
grabbed. grabbed.

8. The cost is less due to single beam. The cost is more due to two beams.

9. The two different modes of oeration are The two different types are using double gun
alternate and chop. tube or split beam using single electron gun.

1. It is used to measure a.c. as well as d.c. voltages and currents. It is useful to

"/ calculate the parameters of the voltages as peak to peak value, r.m.s. value, duty
cycle etc.
2. In laboratory to measure the frequency, period, phase relationships between the
~ signals and to study periodic as well as nonperiodic signals.
:Y-1n radar, it is used for giving the visual representation of target such as aeroplane,
ship etc.
4/ln radio applications, it is used to trace and measure a signal through out the RF, IF
and AF channels of radio and television receivers. It provides the only effective
 way of adjusting FM receivers, broadband high frequency RF amplifiers and
automatic frequency control circuits.
5. In medical applications, it is used to display the cardiograms which are useful for
,/ the diagnosis of heart of the patient. Similarly electromyograms are useful t,o study
muscle condition of the patient.
6. In industry, it is used for many purposes. It is used to observe B-H curves, P-V
diagrams and other effects. Used to study the response of various transducers
which measure strain, pressure, temperature etc. It is used to observe the radiation
pattern generated by transmitting antenna.
7. It is used to determine the modulation characteristics and to detect the standing
waves in transmiss.ion lines.
8. Curve tracers use the oscilloscope technique for testing the acti ve devices such as
\'acuum tubes, transistors and integrated circuits.
9. It is used to measure capacitance, inductance and also used to check the dIodes. It
can be used to check the faulty components in the various circuits.

1. 01'(11(1IIlld expllllll the structure IIl1d mlllll compOII£'llts of (o1l1'elltlolllll cothode ral/ tullC.
2. WilY phosphor screell Is provided with 1111 IIlumllllum layer 7

3. stllte the l'IIrlous phosphors IIIIUlllg differellt perslstellce IIlld colours. State th"lr appl/catioll areas.
4. State the unrious characteristics of P31 phosphor .
.J. Draw the block diagram of gelleral purpose CR.a. Explalll the fUllctlolls of ('(IrIOIIS /Jlocks.
6. Draw alld explalll the block diagram of the vertical amplifier used III oscilloscopes.
7. Explaill the fUllction of delay lille ill oscilloscopes. WllIch are the two types of delay lilies 7
8. State and I!xplain vorlous front panel controls of a Simple CR.a.
9. Wllllt I~z-axis Intensity cOlltrol ?
10. lllfhat Is the role of a ti1l1e base generator 7 Iii/hat are the basic tlll1e base requfr('mellts 7

11. Draw alld explaill the block diagram of tmle vase used III Ilormal CR.a.
12. Explaill the followll1g modes of operatioll of time base generator
I) Free run mode
II) Auto mode
is useful to
value, duty Iii) sIngl1! sweep 1Ilode
13. Draw the block diagram of a trigger gel/eratoI'. Explain the uarlous controls associated With It.
14. What is the use of ACs and ACF controls?
15. Which are the hipical trigger sOI/rces 7 Explain their sigl1lficol/cl'.
16. Explain the use offollowing controls
I) INT
t the RF, IF 11') EXT
Iy effective III) LINE
 -- ----------------------------

I
Special Oscilloscopes I

I
I

In many ,1pplications it is necessary to investigate the wilveforms hilving verv high

trt'quL'nC\' or the sigrh1ls which Me nonrepetitive and single event. In sonw ,1ppllclllon'>,
tht' dat.l I~, required to be stored and to be used later whencver neces~<lI":. Such "pL'Li,ll
functions Cclll not be ilchieved using conventional oscilloscopes. The special o'>cilln"cope'>
,1I"L' necessary to perform such specia I functions. The various specie11 oscilloscope'> <lrL'
dclclyed tin,e base oscilloscope, '1IIJlog storage oscilloscope, sampling oscilloscope and
digil,d storage oscilloscope. This chapter expl,lins these special oscilloscopes.

In a conventional oscilloscope, the signal to the vertical plates is delayed by sOllle time,
using ,1 delay line circuit. The waveform before the delay circuit is used to trigger the time
base. This allows the study of all the leading or lagging edges of a pulse type waveform.
This i~ shown in the Fig. 5.1.
Amplifier

Input i.e. signal before

Delay To delay triggers time base
line vertical
cirCUit section
,/
/ . Display
'./ .
/ of delayed
/
, waveform
..
........ _;.../ ....'.
/

Time To ~/(.
base .):) horizontal
generator section
Signal prior
/
Sweep triggered
to delay circuit
Fig. 5.1 Need of time delay
Due to triggering of time base by input signal, sweep starts well in time and when
input appears at vertical sections, the sweep is triggered and delayed W(l\ dorm is
displayed. The delay ensures that no part of the waveform gets lost.
In delayed time base oscilloscope, two time base generators me used. The one is
normal time base while an additional time base generator is used vvhich is superimposed
(5 . 1)
on the normal time base generator output. Due to this additinoal time base, any part of
the waveform can be brightened when oscilloscope is running on a normal time base. The
delayed time base then can be used to fill the screen completely with the brightened part
of the waveform. The user then can study that part of the waveform in great detail.
In c1 delayed time base oscilloscope, a variable time delay circuit is used in the basIC
time base circuit. This allows the triggering of sweep time after the delay time. Thus the
delay time is variable. This time is denoted as td. After this, the sweep is triggered for the
time t,. Then the portion of the waveform for the time t x gets expanded on the complete
()scillo~cope screen, for the detail study.
If inpu,t is pulse waveform and leading edge is used to trigger the delay time, then
bgging edge can be displayed to fill the entire oscilloscope screen. This is shown in the
Fig 5.2(a). Similarly jf the lagging edge is used to trigger the delay time then leading edge
Gln be displayed on the entire screen for the time tx. This is shown in the Fig. 5.2 (b). If
the time delay is perfectly adjusted, then any portion of the waveform can be extended to
fill the entire screen. This is shown in the Fig. 5.2 (c).

Delay A ,- Sweep . A
time is is triggered
triggered I
I
I
I (a) Study
I
I
B of lagging
Portion A-B
Input ~I t..- edge
I I I is enlarged
pulse ,td I tx'
on the screen

(b) Study
of leading
edge

I I
I I
I I B (c) Study
I I
I I of any portion

'--
I I
I I
of waveform
I t I I
. d t
x
0----- tx

Fig. 5.2 Use of additional time delay

5.2.1 Block Diagram of Delayed Time Base Oscilloscope
The Fig. ').3 shows the block diagram of the delayed time base oscilloscope which use
Ill'lin time base (MTB) and delayed time base (DTB).
 MTB Main time
unblanking base
circuit MTB

Ramp output
of MTB

Potentiometer
for trigger
level control

Summation
Summing
of
circuit
unblanklng
pulses

To CRT
grid

Horizontal
deflection
amplifier

Fig. 5.3 Delayed time base oscilloscope

The normal time base circuit is main time base (MTB) circuit which functions same as
c1 conventional oscilloscope. The function of MTB blanking circuit is to produce an
unblanking pulse which is applied to CRT grid to turn on an electron beam in the CRT,
during the display sweep time. The ramp output of MTB is given to the horizontal
deflection amplifier via switch S. It is also given as one input to the voltage comparator.
The other input to the voltage comparator is derived from the potentiometer whose level is
adjustable.
Key Point : Whcl/ the levels of ramp output of MTB and trigger level set by
potel/tiometers are equal, then tire voltage compamtor produccs a ncgative or positive output
spike at that instant.

This spike is used to trigger the delayed time base (DTB) circuit. The time required by
the ramp output to reach the level set by potentiometer is the delay time Td, which is
adjustable.
Similar to MTB, DTB also has a blanking circuit which produces an unblanking pulse,
during the ramp time of DTB.
 The unblanking pulses from MTB and DTB are added by summing circuit and given
to the CRT grid. The unblanking pulse of MTB produces a trace of uniform intensity. But
during ramp time of DTB, the addition of two pulses decides the intensity of the trace on
the screen. Hence during DTB time, the voltage applied to CRT grid is almost twice than
the voltage corresponding to MTB time. This increases the brightness of the displayed
waveform for the DTB time.

This brightened part of the displayed waveform can be moved across as per the
requirement, by adjusting td with the help of the potentiometer.
When the part of the waveform to be brightened is identified, then the DTB ramp
output is connected to the input of the horizontal deflection amplifier through switch S.
The DTB ramp time is much smaller than MTB period but its amplitude (- V to + V) is
same as MTB ramp. 1Ience it causes the oscilloscope electron beam to be deflected from
one side of the screen to the other, during short DTB time. By adjusting DTB time/ div
control, the brightened portion can be extended, so as to fill the entire screen of the
oscilloscope. The horizontal deflection starts only after the delay time td from the
beginning of the MTB sweep. Thus very small part of the waveform can be extended on
the entire screen.

5.2.2 Waveforms of the Delayed Time Base Oscilloscope

The waveforms of the delayed time base oscilloscope are shown in the Fig. 5.4.

~--r-L

.- --,@
.* .
I
I

I
I

-~------~---l
I
I

I
I -v
=1c MTB romp'"'p"

D.C. v~~~~~:~~ltrigger
Comparison of I + V I

CD and (3) -
decides triggering
----+-!1-i---l
:I I: _ V -=-
DTB ramp output

ofDTB I I I I

~
JJiL
,,:
:
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
DTB unblanking pulse
(only for DTB ramp period)

. UiJ Addition of unblanking pulses

® + (±) ~
I
i~
I I I
Voltage during DTB time IS very high
I I I I

:: I:
JTllL
I
I
I
I
I

I
I
The displayed waveform with
a portion dUring
;tditx~ DTB period brightened
t
DTB
time
 By using the alternate mode, selection of MTB und DTB is possible and hence entire
w,wE'formas well c1Sintensified portion of the waveform can be simultimeously displayed
011 the screen as two sepc1rate waveforms. This is shown in the Fig. 5.5.
Brightened
portion

Entire waveform with

':,·,:,,(.1 portion for
time tx is itensified

""\:',,:1 Brightened portion displayed

--~ during DTB time

Fig. 5.5 Both the waveforms displayed simultaneously

5.2.3Application
The basic applicution of delayed time base oscilloscope is to extend any part of the
w,weform on the entire screen of the oscilloscope and make it bright; so thut detail
,1I1cllysis
of that portion can be done. The lagging edge and leading edge of the pulse are
best eXclmples which can be investigated thoroughly with the help of delayed time base
technique.

The conventional cclthode ray tube has the persistence of the phosphor ranging from a
felYmillisecond to several seconds. But some times it is necessary to retain the image for
much 'longer periods, upto several hours. It requires storing of a waveform for a certain
duration,' independent of phosphor persistence. Such a retention property helps to display
the waveforms of very low frequency.
Mainly two types of storage techniques are used in cathode ray tubes which are:
i) Mesh storage and ii) Phosphor storage

5.3.1 Mesh Storage

Basically mesh storage consists of a dielectric material deposited on a storage mesh.
This is caJled storage target. It is placed between the deflecting plates and the phosphor
screen. The writing beam i.e. normally focused electron beam charges the dielectric
material of storage target positively where hit.

Now the low velocity electrons are bombarded on storage target from the flood gun.
The positively churged storage target material allows these electrons to pass through, to
the phosphor screen. Thus the image stored with the help of storage mesh gets reproduced
 thl' e
on the screen. Thus the storage technique has both storage target and a phosphor display rl'gio
target used for storing and displaying the image. ~crCt"

The construction of storage cathode ray tube is shown in the Fig. 5.6. fl nnd
the F

Phosphor
screen

Storage mesh

Writing Collector mesh

gun

In addition to the standard CRT, this CRT consists of dielectric material deposited on
storage mesh, a collector mesh, a flood gun and a collimator. The dielectric material such
as magnesium fluoride is deposited in a thin layer on the storage mesh. This is called
storage target. This technique uses the principle of secondary emission. An electron gun
producing an electron beam is called the writing gun.
When the target is bombarded by the stream of primary electrons, an energy transfer
takes place. This separates other electrons from the surface of the target. This process is
called secondary emission. The number of secondary electrons depends on the velocity of
the primary electrons, the intensity of the electron beam, the chemical composition of the 5U rf,
target and the condition of its surface. The ratio of secondary emission current and bece
primM)' beam current is called the secondary emission ratio denoted as, the
this

The wntmg gun produces a beam of electrons which contains the information of
signal. This beam hit the storage surface, with secondary emission ratio much greater than
unity. Thus the areas where electron beam hit, loose the electrons due to secondary
emission. Thus the write beam deflection pattern is traced on the storage surface as a
positive charge pattern. Since the insulation of the dielectric material is adequate to
prevent charge migration for a considerable length of time and thus the pattern is
effectively stored.
Now to make this pattern visible, special electron gun known as flood gun is switched
on even after many hours. The collimator electrodes act like focusing electrodes and thus
,1djust the electron paths. The collimator electrodes constitute a low voltage electrostatic
I('n~ system.

Ylost of the electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh. But the electrons
can pass through the positively charged areas of the storage target while the areas where
tilt' imilge is not stored are negatively charged and electrons repel from those areas. Thus
 the electrons near stored positive charge only can pass through to the post <:Iccelerator
region and finally upto the display target phosphor. These electrons hit on the phosphor
screen, producing the image which is stored. The display of image remains as long as the
flood guns are on. The display of stored charged pattern on a mesh storage is shown in
the Fig. 51
Collimated QPost accelerator electrode
flood
electrons

Faceplate
-OJ display of
CRT
OJ

/,
o - ~

Collector mesh
Storage
mesh
Storage
surface
d Phosphor display
target

Fig. 5.7 Display of stored charge pattern on a mesh storage CRT

The function of collimator is to align the flood electrons so that they approach the
storage surface perpendicularly.
To erase the pattern on the storage mesh, a negative voltage is applied to neutralise
energy transfer
the stored positive charge. For erase cycle the ERASE button is provided.
This process is
. the velocity of For typical CRT, the normal storage mesh voltage is + 3.3 V while potential of storage
lposition of the surface is - 10 V. To erase the trace, when erase button is pressed, storage mesh potential
>n current and becomes equal to collector mesh which is about 156 V. When the erase button is released,
the storage mesh potential falls to 3.3 V. This level remains constant for 100 msec. During
this time the surface is charged back to 0 V. Then the storage mesh is raised to 13.3 V and
due to capacitive coupling,
ERASE ERASE surface potential raises to
press release
information of

11
.•.156 V
:h greater than The stofClge surface decClYs
~152.7V
to secondary ~ 142.7 V again to 0 V in a time less than
~ surface as a 200 msec. After this time, the
; adequate to storage mesh is again returned
he pattern is to + 3.3 V while the storage

n is switched
+ 13.3 V
+10 V
~~-CJf~~~-
_~;~200m,~
"
surface goes to its nonnClI
potenti.d - 10 V. This completes
des and thus the erase cycle. The mesh and
+ 3.3 V
~ electrostatic OV ~.7-~-----~- "- •...
_--, surface potentiClls during the
-5V
///~ T erase cycle are shown in thl'
'//./1
.£-:2 ~
I
_
- 10 V Fig. 5.8.
the electrons
Storage surface
areas where
, areas. Thus
 5.4.1 Sampling Time Base
The time base circuit of the sampling oscilloscope is different than the conventional
oscilloscope. The time base of sampling oscilloscope has two functions:
i) To move the dots across the screen
ii) To generate the sampling command pulses for the sampling circuit.

It consists of synchronous circuit, which determines the sampling rate and establishes a
reference point in time with respect to the input signal.
The time base generates a triggering pulse which activates the oscillator to generate a
ramp voltage. Similarly it generates a stair case waveform. The ramp generation is based
on the output of the synchronizing circuit.
Both the ramp as well as staircase waveforms are applied to a voltage comparator.
This comparator compares the two voltages and whenever these two voltages are equal, it
generates a samppng pulse. This pulse then momentarily bias the diodes of the sampling
gate in the forward direction and thus diode switch gets closed for short duration of time.
The capacitor charges but for short time hence, it can charge to only a small percentage of
the input signal value at that instant. This voltage is amplified by the vertical amplifier
and then applied to the vertical deflecting plates. This is nothing but a sample. At the
same time, the comparator gives a signal to the staircase generator to advance through one
step. This is applied to horizontal deflecting plates, thus during each step of the stair case
waveform, the spot moves across the screen.
Thus the sampling time base is called a staircase-ramp generator in case of a sampling
oscillosope.

The block diagram of

Input
signal To vertical sampling oscilloscope is
deflecting plates
shown in the Fig. 5.14.
The input signal is
applied to the diode
To horizontal sampling gate. At the start
deflecting plates
of each sampling cycle a
trigger inpu t pulse is
generated which activates
the blocking oscillator. The
oscillator output is given to
Trigger
input the ramp generator which
generates the linear ramp
signal.

Since the sampling must be synchronized with the input signal freq\,lency, the signal is
delayed in the vertical amplifier.
 The staircase generator produces a staircase waveform which is applied to an
attenuator. The attenuator controls the magnitude of the staircase signal and then it is
applied to a voltage comparator. Another input to the voltage comparator is the output of
the ramp generator. The voltage comparator compares the two signals and produces the
output pulse when the two voltages are equal. This is nothing but a sampling pulse which
is applied to sampling gate through the gate control circuitry.
This pulse opens the diode gate and sample is taken in. This sampled signal is then
applied to the vertical amplifier and the vertical deflecting plates.
The output of the staircase generator is also applied to the horizontal deflecting plates.
During each step of staircase the spot moves on the screen. The comparator output
advances the staircase output through one step.
After certain number of p\llses about thousand or so, the staircase generator resets. The
sm,lIler the size of the steps of the staircase generator, larger is the number of samples and
higher is the resolution of the image.
The waveforms of sampling oscilloscope are shown in the Fig. 5.15. In sampling
oscilloscope, a staircase generator is used as input to horizontal section instead of ramp.
The sampling of I the waveform is done at the beginning of each step of the staircase
waveform. The sampled output is used for the vertical section. When this sampled output
is combined with the unblanking pulses, a dot waveform is obtained on the screen.
Triggering pulses to
staircase and ramp generators
I
I
I J 1 I

: : : I +V

1J----LJ---f±
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-V

I +V

Output of comparator
to sampling gate and
I
unblanking circuit
I
I

h/:VjJ\i/
1 iViVVV/
L
- I I I I
I I I

l----=-----n
- I
I
I
 v) The storage cathode ray tube is very much expensive than conventional cathode
ray tube.
vi) The storage cathode ray tube requires additional power supplies.
vii) Only one waveform can be stored in storage tube. If two traces are to be
compared, they are required to be superimposed on the same screen and must
be displayed together.
viii) The stored waveform cannot be reproduced on the external device like computer.

The digital storage oscilloscope eliminates the disadvantages of the analog storage
oscilloscope.It replaces the unreliable storage method used in analog storage scopes with
the digital storage with the help of memory. The memory can store data as long as
required without degradation. It also allows the complex processing of the signal by the
highspeed digital signal processing circuits.
In this digital storage oscilloscope, the waveform to be stored is digitised ,md then
stored in a digital memory. The conventional cathode ray tube is used in this oscilloscope
hencethe cost is less. The power to be applied to memory is small and can be supplied by
small battery. Due to this the stored image can be displayed indefinitely as long ,15 power
is supplied to memory. Once the waveform is digitised then it can be further loaded into
the computer and can be ana lysed in detail.

5.6.1 Block Diagram

The block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the Fig. 5.21.
Vertical
amplifier

Vertical deflection
Control amplifier
logic

Cathode
ray tube
 As done in all the oscilloscopes, the input signal is applied to the amplifier and
attenuator section. The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as
used in the conventional oscilloscopes. The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical
amplifier.
The vertical input, after passing through the vertical amplifier, is digitised by an
analog to digital converter to create a data set that is stored in the memory. The data set is
processed by the microprocessor and then sent to the display.
To digitise the analog signal, analog to digital (AID) converter is used. The output of
the vertical amplifier is applied to the AID converter section. The main requirement of
AID converter in the digital storage oscilloscope is its speed, while in digital voltmeters
accuracy and resolution were the main requirements. The digitised output needed only in
the binary form and not in BCD. The successive approximation type of AID converter is
most oftenly used in the digital storage oscilloscopes. .
The digitising the analog input signal means taking samples at periodic intervals of the
input signal. The rate of sampling should be at least twice as fast as the highest frequency
present in the input signal, according to sampling theorem. This ensures no loss of
information. The sampling rates as high as 100,000 samples per second is used. This
requires very fast conversion rate of AID converter.
Key Point : Hence, generally flash analog to digital converters are used, whose resolution
decreases as the sampling rate increases.

If a 12 bit converter is used, 0.025 % resolution is obtained while if 10 bit AID

converter is used then resolution of 0.1 % (1 part in 1024) is obtained. Similarly with 10 bit
A ID converter, the frequency response of 25 kHz is obtained. The total digital memory
storage capacity is 4096 for a single channel, 2048 for two channels each and 1024 for four
channels each.
The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration and the
waveform to be recorded.
Once the input signal is sampled, the AID converter digitises it. The signal is then
captured in the memory. Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are
possible as memory can be read out without being erased.

~Odes of Operation
The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes of operation:
i) Roll mode ii) Store mode iii) Hold or save mode.

5.6.2.1 Roll Mode

---- This mode is used to display very fast varying signals, clearly on the screen.
The fast varying signal is displayed as if it is changing slowly, on the screen. In this
mode, the input signal is not triggered at all.
 1. Explain why time delay is necessary in oscilloscopes?
2. Sketch and explain the block diagram of delayed time base oscilloscope.
3. Explain with the help of waveforms, how a portion to be studied is brightened in delayed time base
oscilloscope.
4. Dl'scribe the following storage techniques used in storage oscilloscopes:
i) Mesh storngl'
ii) Phosphor storage
5. Compare the mesh and phosphor storage techniques.
6. What is secondary emission ? How it is useful in a storage oscil/oscope ?
7. Explain with suitable diagram the erase cycle in a mesh storage oscil/oscopl'.
8. State the limitations of analog storage oscilloscopes.
9. Draw and explain the block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope.
10. Explain the modes of operation of digital storage oscilloscope.
11. State the advan tages of digital storage oscilloscope.
12. Write a note on sampling oscilloscope.
13. Explain thl' sampling time base used in the sampling oscilloscopes.
14. Draw and explain the block diagram of the sampling oscilloscope.
15. State the advantages of sampling oscilloscope.
16. Draw and explain staircase generator cirCliit used in sampling oscilloscope.
17. Draw and explain voltage comparator circuit used in sampling oscilloscope.
18. Draw and explain sampling gate circuit used in sampling oscilloscope.
19. Explain the expanded mode operation of sampling oscilloscope.
20. How sOlnplin:! rate affects the accurate measurement of rise time? Explain with waveforms.
21. Explain the various modes of operation of digital storage oscil/oscope.
22. Explain the acquisition methods used in the digital storage oscil/oscope.
23. Writl' about sample rate and bandwidth related to digital storage oscilloscope.
24. Explain the special function which can be performed by digital storage oscilloscope.
25 Explain the applications of digital storage oscil/oscope.