RealismandRealistFilmTheorists

Thetermrealismhasbeenputtoalmostasmanyusesinfilmtheoryasinphilosophy.Thebasic
ideainbothareasofstudyisthesame:somethingisrealisticifitbearssomesortofveridical
(truthful)relationtoreality.

Realism
Tospecifyaparticularsenseofrealismonemustspecify(i)whatisbeingdescribedasrealistic;
(ii)whatonemeansbyreality;and(iii)whatrelationisbeingpositedbetweenthem.

Withinartcriticism,thetermrealism,whileultimatelyrootedintheoccidentalmimeticideathat
artimitatesreality,gainsprogrammaticsignificanceonlyinthenineteenthcentury,whenitcomes
todenoteamovementinthefigurativeandnarrativeartsdedicatedtotheobservationand
accuraterepresentationofthecontemporaryworld.Theaimofthismovement,whichattainedits
mostcoherentformulationinFrancebuthadechoesandparallelselsewhere,was,inLinda
Nochlinswords,togiveatruthful,objectiveandimpartialrepresentationoftherealworld,
basedonmeticulousobservationofcontemporarylife.

RealisminCinema
Infilmtheoryandcriticism,onemajorconcernhasbeenwithwhetherparticularfilms,orkinds
offilm(e.g.,filmnoir,neorealistcinema),veridicallyrepresentthetruenatureofthesocialor
politicalorder,orhumannatureorconsciousness,orinterpersonalrelations.

Somedefinitionsofcinematicrealismhavetodowiththeaspirationofanauthororschoolto
createaninnovatoryrepresentation,seenasacorrectivetodominantcanonsortoantecedent
literaryorcinematicdecorum.ThiscorrectivecanbestylisticasintheFrenchNewWave
attackontheartificialityofthetraditionofqualityorsocialItalianneorealismaimingto
showpostwarItalyitstrueface.

Otherdefinitionsofrealismbearonthequestionofverisimilitude,thecommonlyregarded
equivalentofafictiontodeeplyingrainedandwidelydisseminatedculturalmodelsofbelievable
storiesandcoherentcharacterization.

Anotherrelateddefinitionofrealisminvolvesreaderlyorspectatorialbelief,arealismof
subjectiveresponse,rootedlessinmimeticaccuracythaninastrongdesiretobelieveonthe
spectatorspart.

ApurelyFormalistdefinitionofrealism,finally,wouldemphasizetheconventionalnatureofall
fictionalcodes,andwouldpositrealismsimplyasaconstellationofstylisticdevices,asetof
conventionsthatatagivenmomentinthehistoryofanart,manages,throughthefinetuningof
illusionistictechnique,tocrystallizeastrongfeelingofauthenticity.

Morebasicquestionsaboutthenatureoffilmingeneraliswhetheritcanbesaidtobearealistic
mediumatsomemorefundamentallevel.

Thereareanumberofdistinctwaysinwhichfilmhasbeensaidtoberealistic,evenata
fundamentallevel.
(i)thatourexperienceofmotionpicturesengendersillusionsabouttherealityofwhatweareseeing
(motionpicturerealism)
(ii)thatweliterallyseetheobjectscapturedonfilm(photographicrealism)
(iii)thatourexperienceoffilmislikeourexperienceoftheworld(perceptualrealism).

Speciallyphotographicrealismrelatedtothefactthatthetechnologyofthecamerawas
conditionedbythecodeofRenaissancePerspective,i.e.theconventionofpictorialrepresentation
developedbytheRenaissancepaintersofthequattrocento,whonotedthattheperceivedsizeof
objectsinnaturevariesproportionallywiththesquareofthedistancefromtheeye.

Filmswithalongtake,deepfocusstylearemoreperceptuallyrealisticthanothers,sincethey
representspatialandtemporalrelations(betweenthings)bymeansofspatialandtemporal
relations(betweenimages).Ourexperienceofsuchfilmsismorelikeourexperienceoftheworld
thanisourexperienceoffilmswithrapidediting,forinstance.Deepfocusallowsustoperceive
moreeasilyordirectlythespatialrelationsrepresented,andalongtakeallowsustoperceivemore
easilyordirectlythetemporalrelationsrepresented.

Oneideasaysphotographsaretransparent,meaningthatinlookingataphotographyouliterally
seeitssubject.Bazinsaidphotographsarelikedeathmasks.

Filmisperceptuallyrealisticrepresentationofclocktimeandphysicalmovementandalsoabout
spatialityofdiegeticsound.Moreoverthereisasynestheticperceptualrealismthatcomesfrom
amatchingofsoundsandimages.

Themechanicalmeansofphotographicreproduction,forbothKracauerandBazin,assuredthe
essentialobjectivityoffilm.Thatthephotographer,unlikethepainterorpoet,cannotworkin
theabsenceofamodel,waspresumedtoguaranteeanontologicalbondbetweenthephotographic
representationandwhatitrepresents.

ThinkersasdiverseasPanofsky,Kracauer,BazinandPasoliniemphasizefilmasanartofreality
andevenMetz,inhisearlywork,contrastedthearbitraryandunmotivatedlinguisticsignwith
theanalogousandmotivatedphotographicimage.

Theimpressionofrealityinthecinema,semioticiansargued,wasalsoreinforcedbyconventionsof
narrativeconstruction.ThenotionofClassicalcinema,firstformulatedbyBazinbut
subsequentlyextendedandcritiquedbyothers,denotesasetofformalparametersinvolving
practicesofediting,cameraworkandsound.Classicalcinemaevokesthereconstitutionofa
fictionalworldcharacterizedby
internalcoherence,
plausibleandlinearcausality,
psychologicalrealism,
andtheappearanceofspatialandtemporalcontinuity.
Thiscontinuitywasachieved,intheclassicalperiodoftheHollywoodfilm,byanetiquettefor
introducingnewscenes(achoreographedprogressionfromestablishingshottomediumshotto
closeshot);conventionaldevicesforevokingthepassageoftime(dissolves,iriseffects);
conventionaltechniquestorenderimperceptiblethetransitionfromshottoshot(positionmatches,
directionmatches,movementmatches,andinsertstocoverupunavoidablediscontinuities);and
devicesforimplyingsubjectivity(subjectiveshots,shotreactionshots,eyelinematches,empathetic
music).Theclassicalrealistfilmstoodfor'transparency',i.e.theattempttoeffacetracesof
theworkofthefilm,makingitpassfornatural.

AndreBazin(19101958)
Bazin'swork,abodyofwritingthatissummarizedbyBillNicholsas"adualandperhaps
contradictoryapproachoftranscendentspiritualismandsociology".

Bazin'saffinitiesevolvedfromthecomplexityoftheworldtotheambiguityofourexperience:
"realityisnotasituationavailabletoexperiencebutanemergingsomething'whichthemind
essentiallyparticipatesinandwhichcanbesaidtoexistonlyinexperience".InBazinianterms,
phenomenologycouldthereforebedefinedasastudyoftheinteractiveandconstantlydeveloping
relationshipbetweenhumanconsciousnessandobjectivereality.

Theproperroleofmiseensceneisnottheproductionofcomplexmeaningbutthesimple
renderingofreality,canbedetectedattheheartofBazinsopinionatedviewoftheontologyofthe
imageandhishierarchyofformalpractices.

UpuntilBazintherehadbeennotheoreticalchallengetothenascentformalismdevelopedby
writerssuchasSergeiEisensteinandBelaBalasz.Theseveretechnocraticdestructionproducedby
theSecondWorldWarcausedmanyintellectualsandartistssuddenlytochallengethephilosophical
andmoralvalueofformalismandthemanipulationofnatureforthepurposesofman,andBazin
tappedintothisbydevelopingacomplextheoryofcinematicrealism.

BazinandSiegfriedKracauerbothsettheirtheoriesofrealismatopprincipalassumptionsthatthe
specificityofcinemaresidesintheontologyofthephotographicimage.

Bazinsunderlyingphenomenologynotasatheoryoftranscendence,butinsteadasamultifold
theoryofimmanence(inherence,residinginside):
theimmanenceofpoliticalhistoryintheconventionsofgenre;
theimmanenceofrealityintheimage;
theimmanenceofamultitudeofpossibleshotswithintheshotsequence(longtake);
andtheimmanenceofartisticconsciousnesswithinthefilmtext.

In"OntologyofthePhotographicImage",firstoutlinedinanarticlein1945,Bazinworkstosituate
cinemaaccordingtoitsspecificplaceinthehistoricalevolutionofthearts.Heselectsthe
photographicimage,asamechanicalreproduction,asthedefinitivecharacteristicofcinema.Bazin
assertsinthisessaythatfromtheearlydesignofsarcophagusestothecontemporaryuseof
photography,thepurposeoftheartshasessentiallybeen"topreservebeingthroughappearance",
ortowardoffdeathbyguardingsomesensorytraceofourphenomenalexistence.Unlikeother
artforms,photographyandfilmactuallyguardaphysicallyconstructedimprintoftherealobject,
orwhatBazinreferstoasafingerprint."Theoriginalityofphotographyinrelationtopainting
residestheninitsessentialobjectivity".Bazinfollowsthistoclaimthatcinemathusappearstobe
theachievementofthisphotographicobjectivitywiththeaddeddimensionofduration.Healso
says"Ontheotherhand,cinemaisalanguage".

Thisdifferentiationbecomesfarmorepronouncedin"TheEvolutionofFilmLanguage",which
usesasummaryofanumberofdirectors(ErichvonStroheim,Renoir,Welles,CarlTheodor
Dreyer,Bresson),directorswhowouldprovidetheobjectforBazin'slargerCinemaofCruelty,Jean
RenoirandOrsonWelles,inordertodiscussthegradualmovementoffilmlanguageawayfrom
theeditingmannerismsofD.W.GriffithandEisenstein,andtowardsacinemathatreturns
thepossibilityofambiguitytotheimage.Bazinopensthisessaybyclaimingtheretobeadivide
betweendirectors:"directorswhobelieveintheimage,anddirectorswhobelieveinreality".

Morespecifically,therearethoseforwhomtherawtruthoftherealsuffices,andthosewhomust
addmeaningtoitbymeansofplasticmanipulationorediting:thoseforwhomthefinal
signification(Bazindoesindeedusethisword)residesintheorganizationofelementsasopposed
totheobjectivecontentoftheirimages.

Depthoffield,Bazinargues,affectstherelationshipbetweenthespectatorandtheimageby
refusingtodeterminetheattentionoftheviewer;itproduces,instead,amorerealisticrelationship
withtheviewedspace,andthusamoreactivementalroleandevencontributiononbehalfofthe
spectator.Theuseofdeepfocuscinematography,which"confirmstheunityofactorand
decor,thetotalinterdependenceofeverythingreal,fromthehumantothemineral".

Bazin'srejectionofcertainformsofmontageresidesontwoplanes:defenceofthefruitful
polysemyofreality,anddefenceofthefreeandactivespectator.Assuch,wearriveatacruxof
thephenomenologicalinBazin'swork:thepraiseofambiguityasavirtueofthereal,and
acknowledgementofourplacenotasdistantobserversoftheworld,butasbeingimplicated,
involvedinit.

EvokingthewritingofMerleauPontyandgestaltphenomenologyingeneral,Bazinclaimsthat
Renoir'sdirectorialpowerandaestheticgeniusliein"theattentionhepaystotheimportanceof
individualthingsinrelationtooneanother".

ForBazinthereisnotonlyarealthatisexternaltocinema,butalsoarealityinwhichcinemaplays
animportantrole,bothasarecordingdeviceandalsoasasociopoliticalforce.Bazinsnotionofthe
realimplicatesthedirector,actorandspectatorintheworldaroundus,fromwhichweare
inseparable.

SiegfriedKracauer(18891966)
Kracauerdescribes,cinemais"anapproachtotheworld,amodeofhumanexistence".
AccordingtoMiriamHansen,Kracauerseesincinemaan"alternativepublicsphere"that"engages
thecontradictionsofmodernityatthelevelofthesenses".Slapstickfilmsareemblematicforthis
alternativepublicsphereinsofarastheynotonlycontainanantidotetoindustrial
rationalization,butalsointimateadifferentorderofthings.

AlthoughKracaueralwaysthinksofcinemaasbasedonphotography,his1927essay
"Photography"distinguishesbetweenthesimplyconfusing"disarrayoftheillustratednewspapers"
andfilm's"capacitytostirup"and"playwiththepiecesofdisjointednature".
Around1930,however,themessianic,redemptiveorientationrunningthroughKracauer'stheory
startstoshift:fromrevolutionary/messianicinterventionintofalseorganizationsofreality
(whichmassculturehelpstodisorganize)toredemptionasthepreservationofwhatisleftof
realitytoexperience.Hiscriticismincreasinglyattacksthe"blindnesstoreality"and"emptiness"
especiallyofGermanfilms,fromWalterRuttmannsBerlin:SymphonyofaGreatCity(1927)to
TheBlueAngel(dir.Sternberg,1930).

AfterHitlercametopowerin1933,Kracauershorrorvacui(horrorfromvacuum)motifchanges
itsobject:insteadofbourgeoisrationalization,henowseesNaziruleashollowingoutreality.
Kracauer's1947bookCaligaritoHitleris'infamous'foritscentralthesis:thefrequencyofhypnotic
tyrantssuchasDrMabuseandfanaticizedcrowdsinthefilmsofGermany'sWeimarRepublic
(19181933)anticipatedtheNazis'seizureofpower.Theconcludingparagraphistypical:"Since
Germanythuscarriedoutwhathadbeenanticipatedbyhercinemafromitsverybeginning,
conspicuousscreencharactersnowcametrueinlifeitself".

ThomasElsaessersuggestsanalternative:weshouldturnKracauer'sargumentwhichhadshifted
theblameforthesubjugationofperceptionfrombourgeoisrationalitytoa(proto)Nazi
mediamachineryaroundagain,asitwere.Inthisperspective,Caligariisnotateleologyof
cinemaleadingtoHitler,butan"incisiveanalysisofbourgeoisconceptionsofnarrativeand
subjectpositions...Kracauer'santipathytoWeimarfilmswasultimatelyduemoretotheir
gentrification(?)ofcinemathantoanyanticipationofthecourseofhistory".

ToKracauer,cinemaisirreducibletodeterminingfact(or)s;itisbotheffect,causeandeffect
withoutcause;itsimagesmanifestaneventorphantomlikeontology.Elsaessertracesthisback
toGyorgyLukacs'1913aestheticsofcinema,whereweconfront"lifewithoutsoul,meresurface",
and"Virtuality'nolongerfunctionsasopposedto'reality'".

Hequalifiesrealisminthisway:"Whataccountsforthecinematicqualityoffilms...isnotsomuch
theirtruthtoourexperienceofrealityoreventorealityinageneralsenseastheirabsorptionin
camerarealityvisiblephysicalexistence"(1960:116).So,whatis"visiblephysicalexistence"?
AccordingtoKracauer's"materialaesthetic",filmshave"anaffinity...forthecontinuumof
lifeorthe'flowoflife'",for"openendedlife".

Asaphilosopherofhistorywhosetshistoryapartfromphilosophy'scertaintiesabout"lastthings",
Kracauerhereequates"historicalreality"with"camerareality"and"lifeworld":historical
realityis"fullofintrinsiccontingencies","virtuallyendless"and"indeterminateastomeaning".
Camerareality,whichstructurallyparallelshistoricalreality.Itcomprisesinanimateobjects,faces,
crowds,peoplewhointermingle,sufferandhope;itsgrandthemeislifeinitsfullness.

WhiletherealismofclassicalHollywoodfilm(andthetheorycelebratingitsnormalcy)uses
realityastheplaygroundofgoalorientedindividuals,Kracauer'srealismisaboutlosingone's
gripontheworld.TheoryofFilmisanethicsofacknowledgedpowerlessness,whichinamanner
comparabletocontemporarywritingsofAndreBazinpraisesItalianneorealismforits"found"
ratherthanconstructedstories.

We(whoeverthatis)regaintheworldonlybylettingcinemahelptheworldtogetridofus.Tosay
itwithKracauer,"theworldthatisours"isonlyfoundas"somethingwedidnotlookfor".
Historyandthecinemaarebothintheiraffinitytounshapedlife,they"virtuallymakethe
worldourhome".

SuchaversionofKracauermatcheswellwithStanleyCavell'sontologyofcinema'sprojectingthe
worldtousandscreeningusoutofit,orwithVivianSobchacksneophenomenologyof"beingin
theworld"sensedthroughthemediumofour"livedbodies"incinema.Mostofall,TheoryofFilm
(orArnheim'sversionofit)appearsasaprecursortomotifsinGillesDeleuzesphilosophyoffilm,
especiallytheideaoffilmsreconstitutionoftheworldasprehumanchaosandposthumanOutside.

His1922essay"ThoseWhoWait"proposedanattitudeof"hesitantopenness"towards
modernity'sephemera;andinhistory,aconceptual"anteroom"or"waitingroom"crowded
with"lastthingsbeforethelast","stoppingmidwaymaybeultimatewisdom".ForDavid
Rodowick,"thisacknowledgmentconstitutesnottheproblembutthesolution",becausehistory
andcinemaasmodesof"knowing"aretobevaluedexactlyfor"theirresistancetoclosure
andtheirelusivenesswithrespecttosystematicthought".