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Article in Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering December 1996
Impact Factor: 0.2 DOI: 10.1016/S0034-4257(96)00067-3
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ELSEVIER
BAC KGROUND
0.0III I
The spectral features in reflectance spectra of green 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
WAVELENGTH (m)
vegetation in the 0.9-2.5 um region are dominated by
liquid water absorption, and also weakly affected by Figure 1. Examples of laboratory-measured green and
absorption due to other biochemical components (Gao dry vegetation reflectance spectra (Elvidge, 1990). The
and Goetz, 1994). Tucker (1980) first suggested that the positions and widths of seven MODIS channels are
1.55-1.75,um spectral interval (the bandpass of Landsat marked with thick horizontal bars in this figure.
TM Channel 5) was the best-suited band in the 0.7-2.5
,um region for monitoring plant canopy water status
from space. Some experimental studies showed that the THE FORMATION OF NDWI
reflectances for certain tpes of vegetation over the The normalized difference water index (NDWI) pro-
bandpass of TM Channel 5 increased as leaf water posed here uses two near-lB channels; one centered
content decreased (e.g., Cibula et al., 1992). A number approximately at 0.86 pm, and the other at 1.24 um.
of road-chanlnel ratio and combination techniques Following the simplicity of NDVI, NDWI is defined as
(Jackson et al., 1983; Hunt et al., 1987) using TM
Channel 4 (.76-0.90 pm) and T Channel 5 vere NDWI= p(O.86,um)-p(1.24pm)}/
[p(0.86 Am) + p(1.24pum)], (1)
proposed for remote sensing of plant water status. Sev-
eral studies using broad-channel ratio techniques failed where p(A) is apparent reflectance, and Ais wavelength.
to detect plant water status change within a biologically p(A) is equal to r L(A) / cos(OO)EA)(A)]
with L(A), GO(,and
meaningful range (Hunt and Rock, 1989; Pierce et al., Eo)(A)being the measured radiance, the solar zenith
1990; Bowman, 1990). angle, and the solar irradiance above the earth atmo-
Imaging spectrometers acquire images i man' Coil- sphere, respectively. In order to show that NDWI can
tigUous channels such that, for each picture element Ibe useful for remote sensing vegetation liquid water
(pixel), a reflectance or eittance spectrum without status from space, the reflectance properties of green
gaps is measured for the wavelength region covered vegetation, dry vegetation and soils, and the absorption
(Coetz et al., 1985). Using spectrum-matching tech- and scattering properties of atmospheric gases and aero-
nique, both the equivalent water thickness (EWT) and sols are described below.
information related to biochemical components of vege-
tation canopies have been derived from airborne im- Green and Dry Vegetation
aging spectrometer data (Gao and Goetz, 1995). Sample laboratory measurements of green and dry vege-
Some of the future satellite instruments, such as the tation reflectance spectra are shown in Figure 1. The
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) positions and widths of seven MODIS channels are also
(Salornonson et al., 1989) and Landsat TM8, will have illustrated in this figure. Because both the 0.86-,um and
man narrow, discrete channels in the 0.4-2.5 um solar 1.24-,um channels are located in the high reflectance
spectral region with signal to noise ratios greater than plateau, the vegetation scattering properties for the two
100. Because these instruments do not have contiguous channels are expected to be about the same. Two liquid
spectral overages, spectrum-matching techniques are water absorption features centered, respectively, at 0.98
obviouslx not suitable for the derivation of liquid water um and 1.20 um in the green vegetation spectrum are
content of' vegetation from data acquired with these small. Although the 1.24-pin channel is off the center
instruments. However, it is still possible to get some of the 1.20-,um liquid water feature, liquid water absorp-
information about vegetation liquid water from these tions at both wavelengths are comparable. The NDWI
data using, for example, the normalized difference water value for this green vegetation spectrum is 0.064 (posi-
index (NDWI) described below. tive). The reflectances of the dry vegetation in the
NDWI-A Nornalized Difference water Indexfor Renote Sensing 259
Wz
U
z
..
F-
.,z
Ca
E-
'C
0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
WAVELENGTH(gm) LIQUID WATER THICKNESS (cm)
Figure 2. Liquid water transmittances for water thick- Figure 3. Sensitivity of NDWI to liquid water thickness.
nesses of 0.05 cm, 0.1 cm, 0.2 cm, and 0.5 cm (from top
to bottom).
0.401
E 0.30 -
U:
0.20- 3:
i;
- 0
U)
..C: 0.10
0.00 iZ
0.40
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
0 10. I-- - 111 .. .
-I
0 00 +
a:. a+ 44t
+ ++ +
V (f :
-0 +0+-4 + :- 4+
_ Ln 2 + +
+ :'t+-+4 +
'C a~~~~~~~
U
Z1,t - O3 0
E-U
- 0.0
W _+I
0. 0 (B): DRIERSILS
0.0X -X Do
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
Figure 4. a) A scatter diagram between reflectance at 1.24 Figure 5. a) A scatter diagram between NDWI and the
0.86-,um reflectance for over 500 wet soils (Stoner and
gm and that at 0.86 um for over 500 wet soils (Stoner and
Baumgardner, 1980), and b) similar to a), but for approxi- Baumgardner, 1980), and b) similar to a), but for approxi-
mately 130 drier soils. mately 130 drier soils.
NDWI for mixtures of all the wet soils with this vegeta- are calculated from the resulting spectra. These NDWIs
tion (solid line) and the mean NDWI for mixtures of all are compared with NDWIs for the pure liquid water
the drier soils with this vegetation (dotted line) as a cases. It is found that the largest errors introduced by
function of vegetation area fraction. Both curves show atmospheric water vapor to NDWIs for liquid water
that the mean NDWI increases as the vegetation area thicknesses of 0.05 cm, 0.1 cm, 0.2 cm, and 0.4 cm
fraction increases. are 1.50%, 0.74%, 0.37%, and 0.22%, respectively.
Therefore, atmospheric water vapor effects on NDWIs
Atmosphere are very small.
The center wavelength positions of water vapor and Atmospheric aerosols scatter and absorb solar radia-
liquid water bands in the 0.9-2.5 um region are rela- tion. The relative importance of aerosol scattering and
tively shifted by approximately 50 nm. The shifts are absorption in remote sensing was previously investi-
due to 0-H bonding strength differences for water in gated by Fraser and Kaufman (1985). In order to illus-
liquid phase and in gas phase. Figure 7 shows the trate the atmospheric effects on NDWI and NDVI,
atmospheric water vapor transmittance and liquid water radiative transfer calculations were performed using the
transmittance as a function of wavelength. It is seen 6S code (Vermote et al., 1996). The calculations were
that the 0.86-pm and 1.24-,um channels used in NDWI made for three narrow channels centered, respectively,
are both located in atmospheric windows, where water at 0.66 um, 0.865 pm, and 1.24 um, for a solar zenith
vapor absorption is very small. In order to quantify the angle of 300, and for a nadir looking geometry. The
effects of atmospheric water vapor on NDWIs, the liquid rural aerosol model with adjustable aerosol concentra-
water transmittance spectra in Figure 2 are multiplied tions was used in the calculations. The assumed reflec-
by atmospheric water vapor transmittance spectra with tances of surface vegetation at the three wavelengths
total water vapor amounts between 0 and 30 cm. NDWIs were 0.03, 0.3, and 0.24, respectively. The true NDVI
INDWI-A .Normalized Difference WVater
Index for Remote Sensing 261
(A) - (.66 m)
- - - p(O.865 im)
p(l. 2 4 um)
U 0.30r - - - - - - __ _ _ _
I
,Z
z 0.20 H
z F
--
0:
0. 10 _
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
VEGETATION AREA FRACTION (B) 1 NDVI
-- NDWI
ScaledNDVI
Figure 6. The mean NDWI for mixtures of wet soils with
green vegetation (-) and the mean NDWI for mixtures of
1.00 - . _ .... Scaled
.
NDWI -
.
drier soils with green vegetation ( ) as a function of vege- z
tation area fraction (see text for more detailed descrip- 0.75
tions). 0iz
2.0
0.50
depths. For the curve of p(O.66 um), the apparent re- 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
AEROSOLOPTICALDEPTH
flectance increases as aerosol optical depth increases
because of the dominant aerosol and molecular scatter-
Figure 8. a) Top-of-the-atmosphere apparent reflectances
ing effects. For the curves of p(O.8 65 um) and p(1.24 as a function of aerosol optical depths for three channels
pum),however, the apparent reflectances decrease as at 0.66,um, 0.865,um, and 1.24,um, and b) NDWI (---)
aerosol optical depth increases because of the dominant and NDVI (-) as a function of aerosol optical depths.
aerosol absorption effects over bright targets (Fraser See text for detailed descriptions.
and Kaufman, 1985). Figure 8 shows the NDWI
(dashed line) and NDVI (solid line) as a function of
aerosol optical depths. In order to see clearly the relative two curves are scaled vertically so that the resulting
importance of aerosol effects on NDWI and NDVI, the new curves, also shown in Figure 8b, both have the
||
same value of 1.0 at zero aerosol optical depth. It is
seen that the scaled NDWI curve (dotted line) decreases
Figure 7. Sample water vapor and liquid water transmit- much slower with increasing aerosol optical depth than
tance spectra. The positions and widths of two MODIS the scaled NDVI curve (dash-dotted line). For aerosol
channels are marked as short thick horizontal bars in this
figure. optical depth increasing from 0 to 1.0, the NDWI de-
creased by 11%, and the NDVI by 34%. Therefore,
1. .. . NDWI is far less sensitive to atmospheric scattering
effects than NDVI.
0.050 i
. - U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
.\ 0.040 v
n
Z
0.40.-1
0.030 H
0.5 2 Leaves I
. ..... 4 Leaves
r~ 6 Leaves
0.30 ,,. 1 n n2
W100i''
1.10 :' ' 'I ' ' ' : 2 4 6
NUMBER OF LEAF LAYERS
Figure 11. Images of NDVI (a) and NDWI (b) calculated from spectral imaging data acquired with AVIRIS over Jasper
Ridge. California on 2 June 1992.
green vegetation pixels with NDVI greater than 0.4 is deviation of NDVI values within each NDWI interval
shown in Figure 12. Many points with NDWI values are calculated. The solid line is the curve of mean NDVI
between 0 and 0.15 have similar NDVI values (approxi- as a function of NDWL, and the two dashed lines are
mately 0.63). This is consistent vith the fact that the the curves of mean NDVls plus and minus 1 standard
spatial variation of the NDVI image over green vegeta- deviation. The mean curve shows that for NDVI values
tion areas in Figure 1la is small, while the spatial between approximately 0.55 and 0.62, NDVI increases
variation of the NDWI image over the same vegetated linearly with NDWI. However, when NDVI reaches
areas in Figure 1lb is large. In order to see more about 0.63. it is almost constant with NDWI. This dem-
quantitatively the relationship between NDVI and onstrates that, at large NDVI values, NDVIs are satu-
NDWI, the points in Figure 12 are grouped at an rated while NDWIs remain sensitive to liquid water in
equal NDWI interval of 0.01. The mean and standard green vegetation.
0.80
0.70
= 0.60
U)
THEY'I'II,,+<I,'.iI
Another data set used in this study is the AVIRIS data A new vegetation index, the normalized difference water
acquired over an area (40'20'N and 10416'W) of the index (NDWI), is proposed for remote sensing of vegeta-
High Plains in northern Colorado, approximately 50 km tion liquid water from space. This index uses two narrow
north of Denver (Yuhas et a, 1993). This data set was channels centered near 0.86 um and 1.24 um. Both
acquired during the vegetation peak gro ving season. channels sense similar depths through vegetation cano-
The imaging scene contains areas covered by sandy soils pies, unlike the two channels used in NDVI. NDWI is
(almost no vegetation), natural grass, and irr'ated farms. a measure of liquid water molecules in vegetation cano-
Examples of apparent reflectance spectra (normalized pies that interacted with the incoming solar radiation.
near 0.86 m) over areas covered by sandy soil, natural It is less sensitive to atmospheric scattering effects than
grass (no irrigation system), and well-irrigated crop are NDVI. A simple test of this index using laboratory-
shown in Figure 13. It is seen that, from bare soil to measured reflectance spectra of stacked leaves shows
natural grass and then to crop, the 1.24 urn reflectance that NDWIs increase as leaf layer increases -indicating
(relative to 0.86 um) progressively decreases. The NDWI is sensitive to the total amounts of liquid water
NDWI values calculated from the spectra of bare soil, in the stacked leaves. Limited tests of this index using
grass, and crop are -0.022, 0.084, and 0.215, respec- two sets of AVIRIS data demonstrated that NDWI images
tively. Using the relationship between NDWI and liquid contain information independent of NDVI images.
water thickness shown in Figure 3, the NDWI values NDWI does not remove completely the soil background
from the grass and crop spectra are converted to equiva- reflectance effects (see Figs. 5 and 6), similar to NDVI.
lent liquid water thicknesses, which are 0.15 and 0.40 It is possible to infer EWTs from NDWIs over areas
cm, respectively. The nonlinear least squares spectrum- fully covered by green vegetation. However, it is difficult
matching technique (Gao and Goetz, 1995) have also to do so from NDWIs over partially vegetated areas,
been used for the retrieval of EWTs from the grass and because soil contributions to NDWIs are mostly nega-
crop spectra. The derived EWT values are 0. 18 cm and tive, whereas green vegetation contributions are posi-
0.40 cm, respectively. EWT values obtained with oth, tive. In order to gain improved understanding of its
methods are approximately the same. usefulness and limitations, NDWI should be further
.NDWI- A .Normalized Difference Water Index for Remote Sensing 265
Figure 14. Images of NDVI (a) and NDWI (b) calculated from spectral imaging data acquired xvith AVIRIS over an area in
the High Plains in northern Colorado.
tested Fith laboratory and field measured reflectance for use in remote sensing studies, NASA Ref. Publ. 1139,
spectra of vegetation canopies. Rigorous radiative trans- Washington, DC.
fer modeling at both the leaf level and the canopy level Bowman, W. D. (1990), The relationship between leaf water
will also help to understand this index. Because the status, gas exchange, and spectral reflectance in cotton
leaves. Remote Sens. Eneiron. 31:249-255.
information about vegetation canopies contained in the
(ibula, W. G., Zetka, E. F., and Rickman, D. L. (1992),
1.24-pm channel is very different from that contained Response of thematic bands to plant water stress. Int. J.
in the red channel near 0.66 um, NDWI should be Remote Sens. 13:1869-1880.
considered as an independent vegetation index. It is Deering, D. (1989), Field measurements of bidirectional re-
complementary to, not a substitute for NDVI. The next flectance. in Theory and Applications of Optical Remote
generation of satellite instruments, such as Landsat 8 Sensing (c. Asrar, Ed.), Wiley, New York, pp. 14-65.
and MODIS. will have channels centered at 1.24 um. Elvidge, C. D. (1990), Visible and near infrared reflectance
Ecologists and iologists are encouraged to develop characteristics of dry plant materials, Int. J. Remote Sens.
newt techniques to extract information about vegetation 11:1775-1795.
canopies from the 1.24-pm channels. Elvidge, C. D., Chen, Z. K., and Groeneveld, D. P. (1991),
Detection of trace quantities of green vegetation in AVIRIS
data, JPL Publication 91-28, Pasadena, CA, pp. 183-188.
The author is gratejul to R. 0. Green of the Jet Propulsion
Fraser, R. S., and Kaufman, Y. J. (1985), The relative impor-
Laboratory and to R. Tubas o t'niversity of Coloradoin Boul-
tance of aerosol scattering and absorption in remote sens-
der, Colorado for providing AVIRIS data, to B. Curtiss of
Lniversitt of Colorado at Boulder and to . D. Elvidge of ing. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. GE-23:615-633.
Desert Research Institute in Reno, Nevada for providing labora- Cao, B.-C. (1995), A normalized difference water index for
tory-measured vegetation reflectance spectra, to L. Biehl of remote sensing of vegetation liquid water from space, in
Purdue University for providing the soil reflectance spectra SPIE's 1995 Symposium on OE /Aero.space Sensing and Dual
used in this article, and to J. Irons, V'.J. Kaufman, and R. S. Use Photonics, Vol. 2480, Orlando, Fl..
Fraser at VASA Goddard Space Flight Center for Usefulcoom- Gao, B.-C., and Coetz, A. F. H. (1994), Extraction of dry
nents on this article. leaf spectral features from reflectance spectra of green
vegetation. Remote Sens. Environ. 47:369-374.
Gao, B.-C.. and Coetz, A. F. H. (1995), Retrieval of equivalent
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