1.

TRANSMISSION LINE

Is a medium ( metallic conductor system ) that is used to propagate electrical

signal or RF wave from one point to another.

1.1. CATEGORIES OF TRANSMISSION LINES

1. BALANCE LINES

Impedance measured between each of the two wires with respect to ground
are equal, therefore current flowing along the wire in opposite direction are equal.

2. UNBALANCE LINES

Compose with two wire, one for the signal potential while the other is for the
grounding system.

1.2. TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINES

1. Two Wire Open Line

It consists of two wires spaced between by insulating spacers from 2 to 6

inches apart. It is commonly used for power lines, telephone lines and telegraph lines.

2. Two- Wire Ribbon ( Twin Lead )

A flat wire transmission line used to connect TV antenna to home television set.

3. Twisted Pair

Line consists of two insulated wires twisted together to form a flexible line
without the use of spacer.

4. Shielded Pair

Consists of parallel conductors separated from each other and surrounded by a

solid dielectric that acts as an electrical shield.

5. Rigid ( Air ) Coaxial Line

This is a concentric line consists of a central, insulated wire ( inner conductor)

mounted inside a tubular outer conductor.

6. Solid Flexible Coaxial Line

 It is made with an inner conductor that consists of flexible wire insulated from
the outer conductor by a solid, continuous insulating material.

1.3. TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES

1. Copper Losses

Whenever current flows through a conductor, some energy is dissipated in the

form of heat. The heat loss is a POWER LOSS. One type of copper loss is I^2 R loss.

2. Dielectric Loss

It result from the heating effect on the dielectric material between the
conductors.

3. Radiation and Induction Losses

Radiation and Induction Losses are similar in that both are caused by the fields
sorrounding the conductors. Induction losses occur when the electromagnetic field
about a conductor cuts through any nearby metallic object and current is induced in
that object.

4. Coupling Loss

Occurs whenever a connection is made to or from a transmission line or when

two separate pieces of transmission lines are connected together.

1.4. TRANSMISSION LINE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Fig. 1.41 Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit

DISTRIBUTED PARAMETERS:

Series Resistance ( R ) -It is the electrical resistance measured along the length of
a transmission lines. It is measured in ohms per unit length.

Series Inductance ( L ) This is due to the magnetic field produced along the line
which keep the current flowing in the same direction with the field. It has a unit of
nano henrys per unit length.

Shunt Conductance ( G ) Since any dielectric, even air is not a perfect insulator, a
small current known as leakage current flows between the two wires. In effect the
insulator acts as a resistor, permitting the current to pass between the two wires. This
property is called conductance ( G ) and the opposite of resistance which is expressed
in siemens per unit length.

Shunt Capacitance ( C ) Capacitance also exist between the transmission line

wires. Notice that the two parallel wire acts as plates of capacitor and that the air
between them acts as a dielectric. This capacitance is expressed in picofarads per unit
length.

1.5. PRIMARY LINE CONSTANT

This constant does not vary with voltage and current, however, they are frequency
dependent on some extent.

Fig. 1.51. Physical dimensions of two -wire pair and coaxial cable

Table 1.51. Formulas for primary line constant based on cable physical dimension

TYPES SERIES INDUCTANCE SERIES CAPACITANCE

Two - Wire L ( / ) Ln (2S/d) C ( ) /Ln ( 2S/d )

Coaxial L ( / 2) Ln (D/d) C ( 2 )/ Ln ( D/d )

Where :
D = Diameter of outer conductor in meter
d = Diameter of conductor/inner conductor in meter
S = Center to center spacing of conductor in meter
1.6. SECONDARY LINE CONSTANT

1. Characteristic Impedance ( Zo ) It is an impedance of an infinitely looking

transmission line or the impedance of a finite length line that is terminated in a purely
resistive load equal to the characteristic impedance of the line.

In terms of Primary Line constant the Characteristic Impedance (Zo) can be

expressed as;

Zo = (Z/Y)

Where :

Z = R + jL, it is the series impedance of the line

Y = G + jC, it is the shunt admittance of the line

At Low frequency, R>> jL & G >> jC..

Hence,

Zo = (R/G)

At High frequency, R << jL & G << jC..

Hence,

Zo = (L/C)

In terms of the physical dimension the Characteristic Impedance (Zo) can be

expressed as;

For Two-Wire :

Zo = 276 Log10 S/d

For Coaxial :

Zo = 138/ r (Log10 D/d)

Prob. The primary line constant for a coaxial cable at a frequency of 10 Mhz were
determine approximately as follows ; L= 234 nH/m, C= 93.5 pF/m , R = 0.568 /m,
G = 0. Determine the characteristic impedance.

Ans. 50

2. Propagation Constant ( ) It is used to determine the reduction in voltage or

current with distance as a TEM propagates down a transmission lines.

In terms of series Impedance (Z) and shunt admittance, the propagation

constant can be expressed as;

= (ZY)

In terms of Attenuation Coefficient ( ) and Phase Shift Constant ( ) ;

= +j

Where ;

Attenuation Coefficient ( ) = R/2Zo, in Neper/meter

for homogenous medium (free space):

Phase Shift Coefficient ( ) = 2/ = ()it has a unit of

radian/meter

for non-homogenous medium :

Phase Shift Coefficient ( ) = /Vp = (LC)

Vp (velocity of propagation )

Prob. A signal will undergo a phase shift of how many radian per meterwhen
propagating on a 25 meter coaxial cable with a velocity of 0.66c and operating at 5
Mhz. Also compute for the total phase delay in degrees.

Ans: 0.16 rad/m & 229.18 degree delay

1.7. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

1. Velocity Factor (F) it is define as the ratio of the actual velocity of propagation
of a radio wave through a given medium and velocity of propagation to free space.

Velocity Factor (F) = Vp/c = 1/ r = 1/n

Where:

c = speed of light
n = index of refraction of a medium

Prob. Calculate the velocity factor and velocity of propagation for a coaxial cable used
as a transmission line, with the characteristic impedance of 50 ohms, capacitance is
40pF/m, and the inductance equal to 50 H/m.
Ans. F=0.0745

2. Electrical Length (l) This is the length of a transmission line relative to the
length of the wave propagating down the line.

Electrical Length (l) = 360l/ , it has a unit of degree

l rad = l/ , it has a unit of radian

Where:

l = physical length in meter

Prob. What length of standard RG-8/U coaxial cable would required to obtain a 45
degree phase shift at 300 Mhz?
Ans.l=0.0825meter

3. Reflection Coefficient () A vector quantity representing the amount of

reflected signal to the incident signal, this is due to impedance mismatch of the
source and the load.

Reflection Coefficient () = Vr/Vi =Ir/Ii = Pr/ Pi

= ZL Zo/(ZL+ Zo)

Where:
Vr, Ir & Pr = Reflected voltage , current & power
Vi, Ii & Pi = Incident voltage , current & power
ZL& Zo = Load & Characteristic impedance
Prob. Calculate the magnitude of reflection because of the mismatch between a 750
ohm line and ( 50-j25) ohm load.
Ans. = 0.277

5. Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) A scalar quantity that represent the degree of
impedance mismatch, it can also be expressed as a ratio between maximum voltage
to minimum voltage or the maximum current to minimum current in a transmission
line.

In terms of incident and reflected voltage or current;

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) = ( Vi + Vr )/ ( Vi - Vr ) = Vmax/Vmin

= ( Ii + Ir )/ ( Ii- Ir ) = Imax/Imin

In terms of incident and reflected power;

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) = ( 1 + Pr/ Pi )/ ( 1 - Pr/ Pi )

In terms of Load (ZL ) & Characteristic (Zo) Impedance;

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)= ZL / Zo , for ZL > Zo

= Zo / ZL, for Zo > ZL

Relationship between SWR & ;

SWR = (1 + )/ (1 - )

And

= ( SWR-1) / ( SWR+1)

Prob. Calculate the SWR & reflection coefficient of the line if the forward power is
250 watts, and the reverse power is 45 watt?
Ans 2.47 & 0.424

6. Return Loss (RL) The ratio of the power in the reflected wave to that in the
incident wave.

Return Loss (RL) = 1 / ^2

In dB,

Return Loss (RL)dB = -20 Log

7. Transmission Loss (TL) It is sometime called Mismatch Loss, due to different
load and characteristic impedance.

In terms of SWR;

Transmission Loss (TL)dB =-10 Log { 1- [ (SWR-1)/(SWR+1)]^2 }

In terms of Reflection Coefficient;

Transmission Loss (TL)dB = -10 Log (1 - ^2)

Prob. A coaxial transmission line with a Zo of 50 ohms is connected to the 50 ohms

output of a signal generator, and also to a 20 ohm load impedance. Calculate the
mismatch loss.
Ans. 0.88 dB

8. Voltage & Current Transmission Coefficient ( v and c )

Voltage Transmission Coefficient( v ) = 1 + Vr/Vi

=1+

Current Transmission Coefficient( c ) = 1 + Ir/Ii

=1-

Prob. A 10volt positive going pulse is sent down a 50 meter of lossless 50 ohm cable
with a velocity factor of 0.8. The cable is terminated with 150 ohm resistor. Calculate
the voltage and current transmission coefficient and the amount of transmitted
voltage to the load.
Ans. 15 volts ( transmitted is greater than incident voltage due to combination of
reflected and incident voltage(in phase relation) at the sending end.

9. Transmitted Power ( PT ) This is the fraction of incident power absorbed by

the load or radiated by an antenna.

In terms of Incident & Reflected Voltage;

Transmitted Power ( PT ) = Pi - Pr

In terms of Incident & Reflection Coefficient;

Transmitted Power ( PT ) = Pi (1 - ^2)

Prob. A generator sends a 75 mw down a 50 ohm line. The generator is matched to

the line, but the load is not. If the coefficient of reflection is 0.6, how much power is
reflected and how much is dissipate in the load?
Ans: 27mw & 48mw

10. Input Impedance ( Zin ) The impedance seen at the input of a lossless
transmission line.

Input Impedance ( Zin ) = Zo (ZL + j Zo tan l)

(Zo + j ZL tan l)

Prob. Calculate the effective inductance seen at the input of an open circuit
transmission line of length 0.12 meter at 3 Ghz. Assume Zo= 75 ohms, velocity factor
of 0.65.
Ans. L=2.75 nH

1.8. TRANSMISSION LINE WAVE PROPAGATION

1. Infinite Transmission Line Condition

If the transmission is uniform and infinite, the wave in the +z (forward)

direction will continue indefinitely and never return in the z (reverse) direction.
( See figure).

2. Matched Impedance Condition ( Zo = RLOAD )

This is a condition where the load is terminated to a pure resistive load with
impedance equal to the characteristic impedance of the line, noting that all power
transmitted is absorbed by the load (maximum power transfer) therefore no reflected
wave is generated from the load.
3. Short Circuit Load Condition ( ZLOAD = 0 )

A short circuit termination has a maximum current with minimum voltage

or zero value.

4. Open-Circuit Load Condition ( ZLOAD = )

An open circuit termination has a maximum voltage with minimum current

or zero value.

5. Mismatch Impedance Condition ( Zo ZL )

For mismatched impedance conditions waves can exist traveling

independently in either direction on a linear transmission line.

Voltage & Current Phasor at any point on the Line;

V(z) = V(o+)e^-jz + V(o-)e^+jz

And

I(z) = I(o+)e^-jz + I(o-)e^+jz

 Voltage & Current relation;

I(o+) = V(o+)/Zo , & I(o-) = -[V(o-)/Zo]

Distance of the 1st voltage minimum from the Load;

dmin = ( + )/2 = ( /4) ( + )

NOTE :

When = 0, which occurs when ZL is purely real and greater than Zo, dmin =/4 and
a voltage maximum exists right at the load.

When = -, which occurs when ZL is purely real and less than Zo, dmin = 0 and a
voltage minimum exists right at the load.

Prob. Calculate the voltage reflection coefficient, SWR, and determine the position of
the first voltage minimum from the load which has an impedance of (15-j20) ohms.
Use Zo = 50 ohms.
Ans. = 0.593/-133.16 or 0.593e-j0.74, = 0.74,SWR=3.914,dmin=0.065

Table 1.8. Comparison between Matched, Open & Shorted transmission

line.

PARAMETER MATCHED SHORT-CIRCUIT OPEN-CIRCUIT

CONDITION CONDITION CONDITION
Load Impedance ZLOAD = Zo ZLOAD = 0 ZLOAD =
Vr = 0 Vr = - Vi Vr = Vi = VLOAD/2
Reflected Signal Ir = 0 Ir = Ii = ILOAD/2 Ir = -Ii
VLOAD = IL* Zo VLOAD = (0 min)
Load Signal ILOAD = VL/Zo ILOAD = ILOAD = 0 (min)
Ii+Ir=2Ii(max)
Voltage Reflection = 0 = 1 180=-1 = 1 0=+1
Coefficient
Current Reflection = 0 = 1 0=+1 = 1 180=-1
Coefficient
Standing Wave Ratio SWR=1 SWR= SWR=
Return Loss RL= RL=1 RL=1
Input Impedance Zin=Zo Zin=jZo tan(l) Zin=- jZo cot(l)
1.9. TRANSMISSION LINE MATCHING

Fig. 1.9. Matching a Transmission Line

1. Quarter- Wave Transmission Matching A short piece (quarter wavelength)

of wire inserted between the load and the transmission line.

Disadvantage of using QWTs

a. A transmission line must be placed between the load & the feedline.
b. A special characteristic impedance for the QWT is required, which depends
both on the load resistance and the characteristic impedance of the feedline.
c. QWTs work perfectly only for one load at one frequency.

The Impedance (Zo) of the matching network is;

Zo = Zo* ZL

2. Stub Matching Stub is simply a piece of additional transmission line that is

placed across the primary line to remove the reactive component of the load.

For Single Stub Matching, the transform load impedance at the stub position
z=-d is;

Z(z=-d) = Zo ( ZL + j Zo tan d )
(Zo + j ZL tan d )

The distance d is chosen so that G=Yo, this condition leads to the solutions;

d = /2 tan ^ - t

where;

t= XL+/- { [RL/Zo] [( Zo-RL )^2 + XL^2] }

{RL Zo}
 Prob. Determine the relative position of the stub needed to match the load with
an impedance of 35-j47.5 ohms to a transmission line with a characteristic
impedance of 50 ohms using shunt, short circuited singlestub tuner.
Ans. t= 0.388 & 5.945, d=0.0589 & 0.2235

2.0. MICROSTRIP & STRIPLINE

1. Microstrip A miniaturized version of stripline best suited to circuit integration of

semiconductor devices.

Fig.2.1. Microstrip

PARAMETER EQUATION
Inductance L= T/L
Capacitance C= L/T
Characteristic Impedance Zo=120T/L, when T/L<<1
Zo=200/[(r + 1.41)] * log [ 6T/(0.8L + w)]

Where:

T = dielectric thickness
L= width of conducting copper trace
w = thickness of conducting copper trace
r = dielectric constant

Prob. What is the value of Zo for a single 0.1 inch wide, 0.005-inch thick track plus
ground plane microstrip line? Assume that the PC board is 0.075-in thick and that the
dielectric constant of the board is 2.
Ans. 78.4 Ohms
2. Stripline Consists of a printed conductor between two ground planes, typically
formed from copper-clad polyethylene sheets.

Fig.2.2. Stripline

The Characteristic Impedance of a Striplime is;

Zo = 138/ r * Log { 2T/[L(0.8 + w/t)] }

Where:

T = dielectric thickness
L= width of conducting copper trace
w = thickness of conducting copper trace
t = distance between copper trace & the ground plane

Prob. A stripline is formed using multiplayer board with dielectric constant of 2. The
center track is 0.15-inch wide and 0.005-inch thick, and the PC board first layer
thickness is 0.05-in thick, with an overall board thickness of twice the single layer.
What is the Characteristic impedance?
Ans. 17 ohms