CHAPTER 1

LED DISPLAY

1) INTRODUCTION

An LED display, or Light Emitting Diode is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting
diodes as pixels for a video display. Their brightness allows them to be used outdoors where they are
visible in the sun store signs and billboards, and in recent years they have also become commonly used
in destination signs on public transport vehicles. LED displays are capable of providing
general illumination in addition to visual display, as when used for stage lighting or other decorative (as
opposed to informational) purposes.

An LED display panel can be either a small display or part of a larger display. LED diodes are used in order
to make up an LED display. LED displays are also used in billboards and store signs. An LED panel
consists of several LEDs, whereas an LED display consists of several LED panels. LEDs used in order to
make up LED displays offer several advantages in comparison to other light emitting sources. A light
emitting diode is made up of a semiconductor chip which is surrounded by a transparent plastic case. The
plastic case allows the light to pass through it. The emission of different colors including ultraviolet and
infrared light depends on the semiconductor material which is used in the diode.

1.1) History
The first true all-LED flat panel television screen was possibly developed, demonstrated and documented
by James P. Mitchell in 1977. Initial public recognition came from the Westinghouse Educational
Foundation Science Talent Search group, a Science Service organization. The paper entry was named in the
"Honors Group" publicized to universities on January 25, 1978. The paper was subsequently invited and
presented at the Iowa Academy of Science at the University of Northern Iowa. The operational prototype
was displayed at the Eastern Iowa SEF on March 18 and obtained a top "Physical Sciences" award and
IEEE recognition. The project was again displayed at the 29th International SEF at the Anaheim Ca.

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Convention Center on May 810. The -inch thin miniature flat panel modular prototype, scientific paper,
and full screen (tiled LED matrix) schematic with video interface were displayed at this event. It received
awards by NASA and General Motors Corporation. This project marked some of the earliest progress
towards the replacement of the 70+ year old high-voltage analog CRT system (cathode-ray
tube technology) with a digital x-y scanned LED matrix driven with a NTSC television RF video format.
Mitchell's paper projected the future replacement of CRTs and included foreseen application to battery
operated devices due the advantages of low-power. Displacement of the electromagnetic scan systems
included the removal of inductive deflection, electron beam and color convergence circuits and has been a
significant achievement. The unique properties of the light emitting diode as an emissive device simplifies
matrix scanning complexity and has helped the modern television adapt to digital communications and
shrink into its current thin form factor.

The 1977 model was monochromatic by design. The efficient Blue LED completing the color triad, did not
arrive for another decade. Large displays now use high-brightness diodes to generate a wide spectrum of
colors. It took three decades and organic light-emitting diodes for Sony to introduce an OLED TV,
the Sony XEL-1 OLED screen which was marketed in 2009. Later, at CES 2012, Sony presented Crystal
LED, a TV with a true LED-display (in which LEDs are used to produce actual images rather than acting as
backlighting for other types of display, as in LED-backlit LCDs which are commonly marketed as LED
TVs).

The 2011 UEFA Champions League Final match between Manchester United and Barcelona was broadcast
live in 3D format in Gothenburg (Sweden), on an EKTA screen. It had a refresh rate of 100 Hz,
a diagonal of 7.11 m (23 feet 3.92 in) and a display area of 6.1923.483 m, and was listed in the Guinness
Book of Records as the largest LED 3D TV.

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1.2) Working of LED Display

The working principle of LED display

(a) System- the system consists of computer equipment, display screen, a video input port and system
software.
Computer: Computer and special equipment directly determines the function of the
system, according to different user requirements for the system to select different types.
Display: Display signal control circuit for display panel received from the
computer, drive LED light to produce the picture, and by increasing the power
amplifier, speaker output sound.
Video input port: Video input port, signal source can be a VCR, DVD, video
camera, support NTSC, PAL, S Video and other formats.
System software: provide the LED player software, PowerPoint or ES98 video player
software.

The system function of the system has the following functions:

i) Take the computer as the control center.
ii) Electronic screens and computer, monitors (VGA) an area of the window point wise
correspondence.
iii) Displays real-time synchronization.
iv) The screen mapping position can be adjusted.
v) Can conveniently select the size of the display screen.
vi) Dot matrix display high brightness LED (red, green, double color), 256 level gray scale, color
changing combinations of 65536, abundant colors.
vii) VGA 24 bit true color display mode and support.
viii) Equipped with information and 3D animation software, information and 3D animation can play
high quality.
ix) Playback software display information in a way that has more than 10 kinds of forms
of coverage, closure, curtain, color alternation, zoom.

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 x) Using a special program editing and playback software, may through the
keyboard, mouse, scanner, different input method editor, add, delete and modify text, graphics,
image and other information.

Arrangement to control the host or server hard disk broadcast, sequence and time, to realize the integration
of alternate play, and can be superimposed on each other. It can receive and display the VCR, DVD players
and other video signal. Introduction the LED electronic display screen system and classification
of the rapid development of LED display market in recent years, has been widely applied to banks, post
and telecommunications, tax, airport, station, securities market and other
markets, hospitals, electricity, customs, sports and other required notice, publicity. LED is a light emitting
diode Light Emitting Diode is the English abbreviation. LED display is a display device composed of light-
emitting diode array. It uses low-voltage scan driver, has the following advantages: 1, low power
consumption, long service life, 2, 3, 4, low cost, high brightness, wide angle of view, 5, 6, far visual
distance, 7, specifications varieties.

LED display products series:

Monochrome, color display.
Computer control, digital display
Monochrome display
Color (red, green, yellow) graphic display,
Dot matrix display screen and hybrid (Securities screen)
Double colors (red, green) multimedia video synchronous display.
Three colors (red, green, blue) multimedia video synchronous display screen.

LED display classification: according to the display color is divided into: red, green, red and
green colors, single RGB color by using function is divided into: graphic display, multimedia video display
screen, screen display market, according to the use environment is divided into: indoor display, outdoor

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displays, half outdoor display by luminous point diameter is divided into: 3, 3.7, 4.8, 5,
8, pH8, PH10,PH16, PH20 etc.

The basic point of light non market LED display, indoor LED display screen in accordance with the LED
single point diameter can be divided into Phi 3mm, Phi 3.75mm, Phi 5mm, Phi 8mm, and phi 10mm
display screen; outdoor LED display screen according to the pixel diameter can be divided into Phi 16mm,
Phi 19mm, Phi 22mm, and phi 26mm. LED display screen. Can be divided according to the size of
the 2.0cm digital tube LED display market (0.8inch), 2.5cm (1.0inch), 3.0cm (1.2inch), 4.6cmm
(1.8inch), 5.8cm (2.3inch), 7.6cm (3inch) and LED display screen. Display color: LED display according
to the display color is divided into single color LED display (including pseudo color LED display screen),
double color LED display and full color (three colors) LED display. According to the gray level can be
divided into 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 level gray scale LED display etc. Displays performance: LED display to
display the property divided into text, graphic display of the LED display, LED display screen of
computer video, video LED display and LED display market. The LED display market LED display
generally include securities, interest rates, futures and other purposes.

1.3) The technical characteristics of LED display:

i) The effect of excellence: the dynamic scanning technology, image stabilization, no noise, image is
clear, vivid animation effect, diversity ,video effects fluid.
ii) Rich in content: can display text, graphics, images, animation, video information.
iii) Flexible: any arrangement by the user display mode.
iv) Quality assurance: imported light-emitting materials, high quality IC chip, no noise, high power
supply.
v) A large amount of information: The information displayed is not restricted.
vi) Convenient repair: modular design, installation, maintenance is convenient.

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 CHAPTER 2
COMPONENTS USED IN THE PROJECT

1) PCB- A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets laminated onto
a non-conductive substrate. Components (e.g. capacitors, resistors or active devices) are
generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate.
PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and
inner layers). Conductors on different layers are connected with wires. Multi-layer PCBs allow for much
higher component density.

FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate. A basic building block of the PCB is an FR-4 panel
with a thin layer of copper foil laminated to one or both sides. In multi-layer boards multiple layers of
material are laminated together.

Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire
wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require the additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but
manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster
than with other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single part.
A minimal PCB with a single component used for easier prototyping is called a breakout board.
When the board has no embedded components it is more correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB)
or etched wiring board. However, the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated
with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board
assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card
assembly (CCA), and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used
informally both for bare and assembled boards.
The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $60.2 billion in 2014.

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1.1) Design
A board designed in 1967; the sweeping curves in the traces are evidence of freehand design using adhesive
tape.

Initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photo mask on a clear Mylar sheet, usually at two or
four times the true size. Starting from the schematic diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the
Mylar and then traces were routed to connect the pads. Rub-on dry transfers of common component
footprints increased efficiency. Traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing
grids on the Mylar assisted in layout. To fabricate the board, the finished photo mask was photo
lithographically reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards.

Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated layout software, generally in the following steps :
1. Schematic capture through an electronic design automation (EDA) tool.
2. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB.
3. The positions of the components and heat sinks are determined.
4. Layer stack of the PCB is decided, with one to tens of layers depending on
complexity. Ground and power planes are decided. A power plane is the counterpart to a ground
plane and behaves as an AC signal ground while providing DC power to the circuits mounted on the
PCB. Signal interconnections are traced on signal planes. Signal planes can be on the outer as well
as inner layers. For optimal EMI performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers
between power or ground planes.
5. Line impedance is determined using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper thickness and trace-
width. Trace separation is also taken into account in case of differential signals. Micro strip, strip
line or dual strip line can be used to route signals.
6. Components are placed. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into account and lands are
marked.

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 7. Signal traces are routed. Electronic design automation tools usually create clearances and
connections in power and ground planes automatically.
8. Gerber files are generated for manufacturing.

1.2) Manufacturing
PCB manufacturing consists of many steps.

1.2.1) PCB CAM

Manufacturing starts from the PCB fabrication data generated by computer aided design, such as Gerber
layer images, Gerber or Exelon drill files, IPC-D-356 net list and component information. The Gerber or
Exelon files in the fabrication data are never used directly on the manufacturing equipment but always read
into the CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) software.

CAM performs the following functions:

1. Input of the fabrication data.
2. Verification of the data; optionally DFM
3. Compensation for deviations in the manufacturing processes (e.g. scaling to compensate for
distortions during lamination)
4. Penalization
5. Output of the digital tools (copper patterns, solder resist image, legend image, drill files, automated
optical inspection data, electrical test files,...)

1.2.2) Penalization
Penalization is a procedure whereby a number of PCBs are grouped for manufacturing onto a larger board -
the panel. Usually a panel consists of a single design but sometimes multiple designs are mixed on a single

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panel. There are two types of panels: assembly panels - often called arrays - and bare board manufacturing
panels. The assemblers often mount components on panels rather than single PCBs because this is
efficient. The bare board manufactures always uses panels, not only for efficiency, but because of the
requirements of the plating process. Thus a manufacturing panel can consist of a grouping of individual
PCBs or of arrays, depending on what must be delivered.

The panel is eventually broken apart into individual PCBs; this is called depaneling. Separating the
individual PCBs is frequently aided by drilling or routing perforations along the boundaries of the
individual circuits, much like a sheet of postage stamps. Another method, which takes less space, is to cut
V-shaped grooves across the full dimension of the panel. The individual PCBs can then be broken apart
along this line of weakness. Today depaneling is often done by lasers which cut the board with no contact.
Laser panelization reduces stress on the fragile circuits.

1.2.3) Copper patterning

The first step is to replicate the pattern in the fabricator's CAM system on a protective mask on the copper
foil PCB layers. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. (Alternatively, a conductive ink can be
ink-jetted on a blank (non-conductive) board. This technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid
circuits.)
1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to create the protective mask.
2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and developer to selectively remove a UV-sensitive photoresist
coating and thus create a photoresist mask. Direct imaging techniques are sometimes used for high-
resolution requirements. Experiments were made with thermal resist.
3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil from
the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way
to a plotter, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of the milling head
in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis.
4. Laser resist ablation Spray black paint onto copper clad laminate, place into CNC laser plotter.
The laser raster-scans the PCB and ablates (vaporizes) the paint where no resist is wanted. (Note:
laser copper ablation is rarely used and is considered experimental.

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The method chosen depends on the number of boards to be produced and the required resolution.
Large volume
Silk screen printing Used for PCBs with bigger features
Photoengraving Used when finer features are required

Small volume
Print onto transparent film and use as photo mask along with photo-sensitized boards (i.e., pre-
sensitized boards), then etch. (Alternatively, use a film photoplotter)
Laser resist ablation
PCB milling

Hobbyist
Laser-printed resist: Laser-print onto toner transfer paper, heat-transfer with an iron or modified
laminator onto bare laminate, soak in water bath, touch up with a marker, then etch.
Vinyl film and resist, non-washable marker, some other methods. Labor-intensive, only suitable for
single boards.

1.2.3) Subtractive, additive and semi-additive processes

The two processing methods used to produce a double-sided PWB with plated-through holes
Subtractive methods remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board to leave only the desired copper
pattern. In additive methods the pattern is electroplated onto a bare substrate using a complex process. The
advantage of the additive method is that less material is needed and less waste is produced. In the full
additive process the bare laminate is covered with a photosensitive film which is imaged (exposed to light
through a mask and then developed which removes the unexposed film). The exposed areas are sensitized
in a chemical bath, usually containing palladium and similar to that used for through hole plating which
makes the exposed area capable of bonding metal ions. The laminate is then plated with copper in the
sensitized areas. When the mask is stripped, the PCB is finished.

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Semi-additive is the most common process: The unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it.
A reverse mask is then applied. (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the
substrate that will eventually become the traces.) Additional copper is then plated onto the board in the
unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then
applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed bare original copper
laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some single-sided boards which have plated-
through holes are made in this way. General Electric made consumer radio sets in the late 1960s using
additive boards.

The (semi-)additive process is commonly used for multi-layer boards as it facilitates the plating-through of
the holes to produce conductive vias in the circuit board.

1.3) Chemical etching

Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium per sulfate or ferric chloride. For PTH (plated-through
holes), additional steps of electro less deposition are done after the holes are drilled, then copper is
electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead
becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away.

The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in
which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride. Compared with methods used for
mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching
rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching.
Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become
commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is
distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow
rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production
rates.

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As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less effective; different
etchants have different capacities for copper, with some as high as 150 grams of copper per litre of
solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the dissolved copper
recovered and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive
and toxic due to its metal content.

The etchant removes copper on all surfaces exposed by the resist. "Undercut" occurs when etchant attacks
the thin edge of copper under the resist; this can reduce conductor widths and cause open-circuits. Careful
control of etch time is required to prevent undercut. Where metallic plating is used as a resist, it can
"overhang" which can cause short-circuits between adjacent traces when closely spaced. Overhang can be
removed by wire-brushing the board after etching.

1.4) Inner layer automated optical inspection (AOI)

The inner layers are given a complete machine inspection before lamination because afterwards mistakes
cannot be corrected. The automatic optical inspection system scans the board and compares it with the
digital image generated from the original design data.

1.5) Lamination
Cut through a SDRAM-module, a multi-layer PCB. Note the via, visible as a bright copper-colored band
running between the top and bottom layers of the board.

Multi-layer printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. This is achieved by laminating a stack
of materials in a press by applying pressure and heat for a period of time. This results in an inseparable one

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piece product. For example, a four-layer PCB can be fabricated by starting from a two-sided copper-clad
laminate, etch the circuitry on both sides, then laminate to the top and bottom pre-preg and copper foil. It is
then drilled, plated, and etched again to get traces on top and bottom layers.

1.6) Drilling

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid coated tungsten
carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since many board materials are very abrasive and drilling
must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also remain sharp so as not to mar or
tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and
thus tear the copper and ruin the boards. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with
placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also called numerically
controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled
hole.

Holes may be made conductive, by electroplating or inserting metal eyelets (hollow), to electrically and
thermally connect board layers. Some conductive holes are intended for the insertion of through-hole-
component leads. Others, typically smaller and used to connect board layers, are called vias.

When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high rates of wear and
breakage. In this case, the vias may be laser drilledevaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have
an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias.

It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the
PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing
through the entire board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an
outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers.

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The hole walls for boards with two or more layers can be made conductive and then electroplated with
copper to form plated-through holes. These holes electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB. For
multi-layer boards, those with three layers or more, drilling typically produces a smear of the high
temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can be
plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch. The de-
smear process ensures that a good connection is made to the copper layers when the hole is plated through.

On high reliability boards a process called etch-back is performed chemically with a potassium
permanganate based etchant or plasma. The etch-back removes resin and the glass fibers so that the copper
layers extend into the hole and as the hole is plated become integral with the deposited copper.

1.7) Plating and coating

PCBs are plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel and a resist for etching away the unneeded underlying
copper.

After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the solder mask is applied, and then any exposed copper
is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-corrosion coating.

Matte solder is usually fused to provide a better bonding surface for bare copper. Treatments, such
as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface oxidation of bare copper. The places to which components will be
mounted are typically plated, because untreated bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily
solderable. Traditionally, any exposed copper was coated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL).
The HASL finish prevents oxidation from the underlying copper, thereby guaranteeing a solderable surface.
This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance with
the RoHS directive in the EU, which restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-free compounds is
SN100CL, made up of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel, and a nominal of 60 ppm germanium

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It is important to use solder compatible with both the PCB and the parts used. An example is ball grid
array (BGA) using tin-lead solder balls for connections losing their balls on bare copper traces or using
lead-free solder paste.

Other platings used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver (IAg), immersion tin, electroless
nickel with immersion gold coating (ENIG), electroless nickel electroless palladium immersion gold
(ENEPIG) and direct gold plating (over nickel). Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards,
are often nickel-plated then gold-plated. Another coating consideration is rapid diffusion of coating metal
into Tin solder. Tin forms intermetallics such as Cu6Sn5 and Ag3Cu that dissolve into the Tin liquidus or
solidus(@50C), stripping surface coating or leaving voids.

Electrochemical migration (ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments on or in a printed circuit
board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias. Silver, zinc, and aluminum are known to
grow whiskers under the influence of an electric field. Silver also grows conducting surface paths in the
presence of halide and other ions, making it a poor choice for electronics use. Tin will grow "whiskers" due
to tension in the plated surface. Tin-Lead or solder plating also grows whiskers, only reduced by the
percentage Tin replaced. Reflow to melt solder or tin plate to relieve surface stress lowers whisker
incidence. Another coating issue is tin pest, the transformation of tin to a powdery allotrope at low
temperature.

1.8) Solder resist application

Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with solder resist (solder mask). One of the most
common solder resists used today is called "LPI" (liquid photoimageable solder mask).[31] A photo-
sensitive coating is applied to the surface of the PWB, then exposed to light through the solder mask image
film, and finally developed where the unexposed areas are washed away. Dry film solder mask is similar to
the dry film used to image the PWB for plating or etching. After being laminated to the PWB surface it is

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imaged and develop as LPI. Once common but no longer commonly used because of its low accuracy and
resolution is to screen print epoxy ink. Solder resist also provides protection from the environment.

1.9) Legend printing

A legend is often printed on one or both sides of the PCB. It contains the component designators, switch
settings, test points and other indications helpful in assembling, testing and servicing the circuit board.

There are three methods to print the legend.

1. Silk screen printing epoxy ink was the established method. It was so common that legend is often
misnamed silk or silkscreen.
2. Liquid photo imaging is a more accurate method than screen printing.
3. Ink jet printing is new but increasingly used. Ink jet can print variable data such as a text or bar
code with a serial number.

1.10) Bare-board test

Unpopulated boards are usually bare-board tested for "shorts" and "opens". A short is a connection between
two points that should not be connected. An open is a missing connection between points that should be
connected. For high-volume production a fixture or a rigid needle adapter makes contact with copper lands
on the board. The fixture or adapter is a significant fixed cost and this method is only economical for high-
volume or high-value production. For small or medium volume production flying probe testers are used
where test probes are moved over the board by an XY drive to make contact with the copper lands. There is
no need for a fixture and hence the fixed costs are much lower. The CAM system instructs the electrical
tester to apply a voltage to each contact point as required and to check that this voltage appears on the
appropriate contact points and only on these.

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1.11) Assembly
In assembly the bare board is populated (or "stuffed") with electronic components to form a
functional printed circuit assembly (PCA), sometimes called a "printed circuit board assembly"
(PCBA). In through-hole technology, the component leads are inserted in holes surrounded by
conductive pads; the holes keep the components in place. In surface-mount technology (SMT), the
component is placed on the PCB so that the pins line up with the conductive pads or lands on the surfaces
of the PCB; solder paste, which was previously applied to the pads, holds the components in place; if
surface-mount components are applied to both sides of the board, the bottom-side components are glued to
the board. In both through whole and surface mount, the components are then soldered.

There are a variety of soldering techniques used to attach components to a PCB. High volume production is
usually done with a "Pick and place machine" or SMT placement machine and bulk wave soldering
or reflow ovens, but skilled technicians are able to solder very tiny parts (for instance 0201 packages which
are 0.02 in. by 0.01 in.) by hand under a microscope, using tweezers and a fine tip soldering iron for small
volume prototypes. Some parts cannot be soldered by hand, such as BGA packages.

Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be combined in a single assembly because some
required components are available only in surface-mount packages, while others are available only in
through-hole packages. Another reason to use both methods is that through-hole mounting can provide
needed strength for components likely to endure physical stress, while components that are expected to go
untouched will take up less space using surface-mount techniques.

After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:
While the power is off, visual inspection, automated optical inspection. JEDEC guidelines for PCB
component placement, soldering, and inspection are commonly used to maintain quality control in
this stage of PCB manufacturing.
While the power is off, analog signature analysis, power-off testing.

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 While the power is on, in-circuit test, where physical measurements (for example, voltage) can be
done.
While the power is on, functional test, just checking if the PCB does what it had been designed to
do.

To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make temporary connections. Sometimes
these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit test may also exercise boundary scan test features
of some components. In-circuit test systems may also be used to program nonvolatile memory components
on the board.

In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the board form temporary connections
between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all
the ICs to be tested use a standard test configuration procedure, the most common one being the Joint Test
Action Group (JTAG) standard. The JTAG test architecture provides a means to test interconnects between
integrated circuits on a board without using physical test probes. JTAG tool vendors provide various types
of stimulus and sophisticated algorithms, not only to detect the failing nets, but also to isolate the faults to
specific nets, devices, and pins.

When boards fail the test, technicians may desolder and replace failed components, a task known
as rework.

1.12) Protection and packaging

PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating, which is applied by dipping or
spraying after the components have been soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or
shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were wax; modern conformal coats are usually
dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a
conformal coating is for plastic to be sputtered onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage
of conformal coatings is that servicing of the board is rendered extremely difficult.

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Many assembled PCBs are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed in antistatic bags during transport.
When handling these boards, the user must be grounded (earthed). Improper handling techniques might
transmit an accumulated static charge through the board, damaging or destroying components. Even bare
boards are sometimes static sensitive. Traces have become so fine that it's quite possible to blow an etch off
the board (or change its characteristics) with a static charge. This is especially true on non-traditional PCBs
such as MCMs and microwave PCBs.

1.13) PCB characteristics

Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control follows standards published
by the IPC organization.

Through-hole technology-The first PCBs used through-hole technology, mounting electronic components
by leads inserted through holes on one side of the board and soldered onto copper traces on the other side.
Boards may be single-sided, with an unplanted component side, or more compact double-sided boards,
with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal installation of through-hole parts with two axial leads
(such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction,
inserting the part in the board (often bending leads located on the back of the board in opposite directions
to improve the part's mechanical strength), soldering the leads, and trimming off the ends. Leads may
be soldered either manually or by a wave soldering machine.

Through-hole PCB technology almost completely replaced earlier electronics assembly techniques such
as point-to-point construction. From the second generation of computers in the 1950s until surface-
mount technology became popular in the late 1980s, every component on a typical PCB was a through-hole
component.

19
Through-hole manufacture adds to board cost by requiring many holes to be drilled accurately, and limits
the available routing area for signal traces on layers immediately below the top layer on multi-layer boards
since the holes must pass through all layers to the opposite side. Once surface-mounting came into use,
small-sized SMD components were used where possible, with through-hole mounting only of components
unsuitably large for surface-mounting due to power requirements or mechanical limitations, or subject to
mechanical stress which might damage the PCB.

Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s home computer. A box of drill bits used
for making holes in printed circuit boards. While tungsten-carbide bits are very hard, they eventually wear
out or break. Drilling is a considerable part of the cost of a through-hole printed circuit board.

Surface-mount technology-Surface mount components, including resistors, transistors and an integrated

circuit. Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s and became
widely used by the mid-1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end
caps that could be soldered directly onto the PCB surface, instead of wire leads to pass through holes.
Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more
common than with through-hole mounting, allowing much smaller PCB assemblies with much higher
circuit densities. Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labor costs
and greatly increasing production rates. Components can be supplied mounted on carrier tapes. Surface
mount components can be about one-quarter to one-tenth of the size and weight of through-hole
components, and passive components much cheaper; prices of semiconductor surface mount
devices (SMDs) are determined more by the chip itself than the package, with little price advantage over
larger packages. Some wire-ended components, such as 1N4148 small-signal switch diodes, are actually
significantly cheaper than SMD equivalents.

1.14) Circuit properties of the PCB

Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. Its resistance,
determined by its width, thickness, and length, must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will

20
carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire
layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a ground plane for shielding and power return.
For microwave circuits, transmission lines can be laid out in a planar form such as strip line or micro
strip with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a consistent impedance. In radio-frequency and fast
switching circuits the inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become
significant circuit elements, usually undesired; but they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit
design, obviating the need for additional discrete components.

1.15) Materials
Excluding exotic products using special materials or processes all printed circuit boards manufactured
today can be built using the following four materials:
1. Laminates
2. Copper-clad laminates
3. Resin impregnated B-stage cloth (Pre-preg)
4. Copper foil

Laminates
Laminates are manufactured by curing under pressure and temperature layers of cloth or paper
with thermoset resin to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness. The size can be up to 4 by 8 feet
(1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per inch or cm), cloth thickness, and
resin percentage are used to achieve the desired final thickness and dielectric characteristics.The cloth or
fiber material used, resin material, and the cloth to resin ratio determine the laminate's type designation
(FR-4, CEM-1, G-10, etc.) and therefore the characteristics of the laminate produced.

Important characteristics are the level to which the laminate is fire retardant, the dielectric constant (er),
the loss factor (t), the tensile strength, the shear strength, the glass transition temperature (Tg), and the Z-
axis expansion coefficient (how much the thickness changes with temperature).

There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values
depending on the requirements of the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon),

21
FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3. Well known pre-preg materials used in the PCB industry are FR-
2 (phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (woven glass and epoxy), FR-5 (woven
glass and epoxy), FR-6 (matte glass and polyester), G-10 (woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (cotton paper
and epoxy), CEM-2 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-3 (non-woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (woven glass
and epoxy), CEM-5 (woven glass and polyester). Thermal expansion is an important consideration
especially with ball grid array (BGA) and naked die technologies, and glass fiber offers the best
dimensional stability. FR-4 is by far the most common material used today. The board with copper on it is
called "copper-clad laminate".

With decreasing size of board features and increasing frequencies, small non-homogeneities like uneven
distribution of fiberglass or other filler, thickness variations, and bubbles in the resin matrix, and the
associated local variations in the dielectric constant, are gaining importance.

Key substrate parameters

The circuit board substrates are usually dielectric composite materials. The composites contain a matrix
(usually an epoxy resin), a reinforcement (usually a woven, sometimes nonwoven, glass fibers, sometimes
even paper), and in some cases a filler is added to the resin (e.g. ceramics; titanate ceramics can be used to
increase the dielectric constant).

The reinforcement type defines two major classes of materials - woven and non-woven. Woven
reinforcements are cheaper, but the high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many higher-
frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous structure also introduces local variations in
electrical parameters, due to different resin/glass ratio at different areas of the weave pattern. Nonwoven
reinforcements, or materials with low or no reinforcement, are more expensive but more suitable for some
RF/analog applications.

22
The substrates are characterized by several key parameters, chiefly thermo chemical(glass transition
temperature, tensile strength, shear strength, thermal expansion), electrical (dielectric constant, loss
tangent, dielectric breakdown voltage, leakage current, tracking resistance...), and others (e.g. moisture
absorption).

At the glass transition temperature the resin in the composite softens and significantly increases thermal
expansion; exceeding Tg then exerts mechanical overload on the board components - e.g. the joints and the
vias. Below Tg the thermal expansion of the resin roughly matches copper and glass, above it gets
significantly higher. As the reinforcement and copper confine the board along the plane, virtually all
volume expansion projects to the thickness and stresses the plated-through holes. Repeated soldering or
other exposition to higher temperatures can cause failure of the plating, especially with thicker boards;
thick boards therefore require high Tg matrix.

The materials used determine the substrate's dielectric constant. This constant is also dependent on
frequency, usually decreasing with frequency. As this constant determines the signal propagation speed,
frequency dependence introduces phase distortion in wideband applications; as flat dielectric constant vs
frequency characteristics as achievable is important here. The impedance of transmission lines decreases
with frequency, therefore faster edges of signals reflect more than slower ones. Dielectric breakdown
voltage determines the maximum voltage gradient the material can be subjected to before suffering a
breakdown. Tracking resistance determines how the material resists high voltage electrical discharges
creeping over the board surface.

Loss tangent determines how much of the electromagnetic energy from the signals in the conductors is
absorbed in the board material. This factor is important for high frequencies. Low-loss materials are more
expensive. Choosing unnecessarily low-loss material is a common error in high-frequency digital design; it
increases the cost of the boards without a corresponding benefit. Signal degradation by loss tangent and
dielectric constant can be easily assessed by an eye pattern.

23
Moisture absorption occurs when the material is exposed to high humidity or water. Both the resin and the
reinforcement may absorb water; water may be also soaked by capillary forces through voids in the
materials and along the reinforcement. Epoxies of the FR-4 materials aren't too susceptible, with absorption
of only 0.15%. Teflon has very low absorption of 0.01%. Polyimides and cyanate esters, on the other side,
suffer from high water absorption. Absorbed water can lead to significant degradation of key parameters; it
impairs tracking resistance, breakdown voltage, and dielectric parameters. Relative dielectric constant of
water is about 73, compared to about 4 for common circuit board materials. Absorbed moisture can also
vaporize on heating and cause cracking and delamination, the same effect responsible for "pop corning"
damage on wet packaging of electronic parts. Careful baking of the substrates may be required.

Common substrates
Often encountered materials:
FR-2 (Flame Retardant 2), phenolic paper or phenolic cotton paper, paper impregnated with
a phenol formaldehyde resin. Cheap, common in low-end consumer electronics with single-sided
boards. Electrical properties inferior to FR-4. Poor arc resistance. Generally rated to 105 C. Resin
composition varies by supplier.
FR-4 (Flame Retardant 4), a woven fiberglass cloth impregnated with an epoxy resin. Low water
absorption (up to about 0.15%), good insulation properties, good arc resistance. Well-proven,
properties well understood by manufacturers. Very common, workhorse of the industry. Several
grades with somewhat different properties are available. Typically rated to 130 C. Thin FR-4,
about 0.1 mm, can be used for bendable circuit boards. Many different grades exist, with varying
parameters; versions are with higher Tg, higher tracking resistance, etc.
Aluminum, or metal core board or insulated metal substrate (IMS), clad with thermally
conductive thin dielectric - used for parts requiring significant cooling - power switches, LEDs.
Consists of usually single, sometimes double layer thin circuit board based on e.g. FR-4, laminated
on an aluminum sheet metal, commonly 0.8, 1, 1.5, 2 or 3 mm thick. The thicker laminates
sometimes come also with thicker copper metallization.
Flexible substrates - can be a standalone copper-clad foil or can be laminated to a thin stiffener, e.g.
50-130 m

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 Kapton or UPILEX, a polyimide foil. Used for flexible printed circuits, in this form common in
small form-factor consumer electronics or for flexible interconnects. Resistant to high temperatures.
Pyralux, a polyimide-fluoropolymer composite foil.[46] Copper layer can delaminate during
soldering.

Less-often encountered materials:

FR-1 (Flame Retardant 1), like FR-2, typically specified to 105 C, some grades rated to 130 C.
Room-temperature punchable. Similar to cardboard. Poor moisture resistance. Low arc resistance.
FR-3 (Flame Retardant 3), cotton paper impregnated with epoxy. Typically rated to 105 C.
FR-5 (Flame Retardant 5), woven fiberglass and epoxy, high strength at higher temperatures,
typically specified to 170 C.
FR-6 (Flame Retardant 6), matte glass and polyester
G-10, woven glass and epoxy - high insulation resistance, low moisture absorption, very high bond
strength. Typically rated to 130 C.
G-11, woven glass and epoxy - high resistance to solvents, high flexural strength retention at high
temperatures. Typically rated to 170 C.
CEM-1, cotton paper and epoxy
CEM-2, cotton paper and epoxy
CEM-3, non-woven glass and epoxy
CEM-4, woven glass and epoxy
CEM-5, woven glass and polyester
PTFE, pure - expensive, low dielectric loss, for high frequency applications, very low moisture
absorption (0.01%), mechanically soft. Difficult to laminate, rarely used in multilayer applications.
PTFE, ceramic filled - expensive, low dielectric loss, for high frequency applications. Varying
ceramics/PTFE ratio allows adjusting dielectric constant and thermal expansion.
RF-35, fiberglass-reinforced ceramics-filled PTFE. Relatively less expensive, good mechanical
properties, good high-frequency properties.
Alumina, a ceramic. Hard, brittle, very expensive, very high performance, good thermal
conductivity.

25
 Polyimide, a high-temperature polymer. Expensive, high-performance. Higher water absorption
(0.4%). Can be used from cryogenic temperatures to over 260 C.

Copper thickness
Copper thickness of PCBs can be specified as units of length (in micrometers or mils) but is often specified
as weight of copper per area (in ounce per square foot) which is easier to measure. One ounce per square
foot is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometers thickness.

The printed circuit board industry defines heavy copper as layers exceeding three ounces of copper, or
approximately 0.0042 inches (4.2 mils, 105 m) thick. PCB designers and fabricators often use heavy
copper when design and manufacturing circuit boards in order to increase current-carrying capacity as well
as resistance to thermal strains. Heavy copper-plated vias transfer heat to external heat sinks. IPC 2152 is a
standard for determining current-carrying capacity of printed circuit board traces.

On the common FR-4 substrates, 1 oz copper (35 m) is the usual, most common thickness; 2 oz (70 m)
and 0.5 oz (18 m) thickness is often an option. Less common are 12 and 105 m, 9 m is sometimes
available on some substrates. Flexible substrates typically have thinner metalization; 18 and 35 m seem to
be common, with 9 and 70 m sometimes available. Aluminium or metal-core boards for high power
devices commonly use thicker copper; 35 m is usual but also 140 and 400 m can be encountered.

Safety certification (US)

Safety Standard UL 796 covers component safety requirements for printed wiring boards for use as
components in devices or appliances. Testing analyzes characteristics such as flammability,
maximum operating temperature, electrical tracking, heat deflection, and direct support of live electrical
parts.

1.16) Multiwire boards

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Multiwire is a patented technique of interconnection which uses machine-routed insulated wires embedded
in a non-conducting matrix (often plastic resin). It was used during the 1980s and 1990s. (Kollmorgen
Technologies Corp, U.S. Patent 4,175,816 filed 1978) Multiwire is still available in 2010 through Hitachi.
There are other competitive discrete wiring technologies that have been developed (Jumatech , layered
sheets).

Since it was quite easy to stack interconnections (wires) inside the embedding matrix, the approach allowed
designers to forget completely about the routing of wires (usually a time-consuming operation of PCB
design): Anywhere the designer needs a connection, the machine will draw a wire in straight line from one
location/pin to another. This led to very short design times (no complex algorithms to use even for high
density designs) as well as reduced crosstalk (which is worse when wires run parallel to each otherwhich
almost never happens in Multiwire), though the cost is too high to compete with cheaper PCB technologies
when large quantities are needed. Corrections can be made to a Multiwire board more easily than to a PCB.

1.17) History
Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th century. In
1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated to an insulating board, in
multiple layers. Thomas Edison experimented with chemical methods of plating conductors onto linen
paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented a print-and-etch method in the UK, and in the United States
Max Schoop obtained a patent to flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Ducas
in 1927 patented a method of electroplating circuit patterns.

The Austrian engineer Paul Eisler invented the printed circuit as part of a radio set while working in the
UK around 1936. In 1941 a multi-layer printed circuit was used in German magnetic influence naval
mines. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a large scale to make proximity fuses for use
in World War II. After the war, in 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits
did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid-1950s, after the Auto-

27
Assembly process was developed by the United States Army. At around the same time in the UK work
along similar lines was carried out by Geoffrey Dummer, then at the RRDE.

Before printed circuits (and for a while after their invention), point-to-point construction was used. For
prototypes, or small production runs, wire wrap or turret board can be more efficient. Predating the printed
circuit invention, and similar in spirit, was John Sargrove's 19361947 Electronic Circuit Making
Equipment (ECME) which sprayed metal onto a Bakelite plastic board. The ECME could produce three
radio boards per minute.

During World War II, the development of the anti-aircraft proximity fuse required an electronic circuit that
could withstand being fired from a gun, and could be produced in quantity. The Central lab Division of
Globe Union submitted a proposal which met the requirements: a ceramic plate would be screen-
printed with metallic paint for conductors and carbon material for resistors, with ceramic disc capacitors
and subminiature vacuum tubes soldered in place.[54] The technique proved viable, and the resulting
patent on the process, which was classified by the U.S. Army, was assigned to Globe Union. It was not
until 1984 that the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) awarded Mr. Harry W.
Rubinstein, the former head of Globe Union's Central lab Division, its coveted Cledo Brunetti Award for
early key contributions to the development of printed components and conductors on a common insulating
substrate.[55] As well, Mr. Rubinstein was honored in 1984 by his alma mater, the University of
Wisconsin-Madison, for his innovations in the technology of printed electronic circuits and the fabrication
of capacitors.

A PCB as a design on a computer (left) and realized as a board assembly populated with components
(right). The board is double sided, with through-hole plating, green solder resist and a white legend. Both
surface mount and through-hole components have been used.

28
Originally, every electronic component had wire leads, and the PCB had holes drilled for each wire of each
component. The components' leads were then passed through the holes and soldered to the PCB trace. This
method of assembly is called through-hole construction. In 1949, Moe Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko
of the United States Army Signal Corps developed the Auto-Assembly process in which component leads
were inserted into a copper foil interconnection pattern and dip soldered. The patent they obtained in 1956
was assigned to the U.S. Army. With the development of board lamination and etching techniques, this
concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today. Soldering could be
done automatically by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a wave-
soldering machine. However, the wires and holes are wasteful since drilling holes is expensive and the
protruding wires are merely cut off.

From the 1980s small surface mount parts have been used increasingly instead of through-hole
components; this has led to smaller boards for a given functionality and lower production costs, but with
some additional difficulty in servicing faulty boards.

Historically, many PCB measurements were in multiples of a thousandth of an inch, also called "mils". For
example, the Dual In-line Package (DIP) and most other through-hole components have pins located on a
grid spacing of 100 mils (0.1 inch). Surface-mount SOIC components have a pin pitch of
50 mils. SOP components have a pin pitch of 25 mils. Level B technology recommends a minimum trace
width of 8 mils, which allows "double-track" two traces between DIP pins.

2) Crystal Oscillator-
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency. This
frequency is commonly used to keep track of time, as in quartz wristwatches, to provide a stable clock
signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The
most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating

29
them became known as crystal oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline
ceramics are used in similar circuits.

A crystal oscillator, particularly one made of quartz crystal, works by being distorted by an electric
field when voltage is applied to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known
as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz - which oscillates in a
precise frequency - generates an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a
voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC circuit.

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz.
More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer devices such
as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and
measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

2.1) Terminology
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses a piezoelectric resonator, a crystal, as its
frequency-determining element. Crystal is the common term used in electronics for the frequency-
determining component, a wafer of quartz crystal or ceramic with electrodes connected to it. A more
accurate term for it is piezoelectric resonator. Crystals are also used in other types of electronic circuits,
such as crystal filters.

Piezoelectric resonators are sold as separate components for use in crystal oscillator circuits. An example is
shown in the picture. They are also often incorporated in a single package with the crystal oscillator circuit,
shown on the right-hand side.

30
2.2) Operation

A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered,
repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.

Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers,
since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a
high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends
on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut
in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches,
are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-
cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal.

When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by
applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as electrostriction or
inverse piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz generates an electric field as it returns to its
previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC
circuit, composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.

Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the
frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics depend on the mode of
vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes). Therefore, the
resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, does not change much. This means that a quartz
clock, filter or oscillator remains accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a
temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to
prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.

31
2.3) Crystal oscillator circuits

A crystal used in hobby radio control equipment to select frequency. The crystal oscillator circuit sustains
oscillation by taking a voltage signal from the quartz resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the
resonator. The rate of expansion and contraction of the quartz is the resonant frequency, and is determined
by the cut and size of the crystal. When the energy of the generated output frequencies matches the losses
in the circuit, an oscillation can be sustained.

An oscillator crystal has two electrically conductive plates, with a slice or tuning fork of quartz crystal
sandwiched between them. During startup, the controlling circuit places the crystal into an unstable
equilibrium, and due to the positive feedback in the system, any tiny fraction of noise is amplified, ramping
up the oscillation. The crystal resonator can also be seen as a highly frequency-selective filter in this
system: it only passes a very narrow sub band of frequencies around the resonant one, attenuating
everything else. Eventually, only the resonant frequency is active. As the oscillator amplifies the signals
coming out of the crystal, the signals in the crystal's frequency band becomes stronger, eventually
dominating the output of the oscillator. The narrow resonance band of the quartz crystal filters out all the
unwanted frequencies.
The output frequency of a quartz oscillator can be either that of the fundamental resonance or of a multiple
of that resonance, called a harmonic frequency. Harmonics are an exact integer multiple of the fundamental
frequency. But, like many other mechanical resonators, crystals exhibit several modes of oscillation,
usually at approximately odd integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. These are termed "overtone
modes", and oscillator circuits can be designed to excite them. The overtone modes are at frequencies
which are approximate, but not exact odd integer multiples of that of the fundamental mode, and overtone
frequencies are therefore not exact harmonics of the fundamental.

High frequency crystals are often designed to operate at third, fifth, or seventh overtones. Manufacturers
have difficulty producing crystals thin enough to produce fundamental frequencies over 30 MHz. To
produce higher frequencies, manufacturers make overtone crystals tuned to put the 3rd, 5th, or 7th overtone
at the desired frequency, because they are thicker and therefore easier to manufacture than a fundamental

32
crystal that would produce the same frequencyalthough exciting the desired overtone frequency requires
a slightly more complicated oscillator circuit. A fundamental crystal oscillator circuit is simpler and more
efficient and has more pull ability than a third overtone circuit. Depending on the manufacturer, the highest
available fundamental frequency may be 25 MHz to 66 MHz.

A major reason for the wide use of crystal oscillators is their high Q factor. A typical Q value for a quartz
oscillator ranges from 104to 106, compared to perhaps 102 for an LC oscillator. The maximum Q for a high
stability quartz oscillator can be estimated as Q = 1.6 107/f, where f is the resonant frequency in
megahertz.One of the most important traits of quartz crystal oscillators is that they can exhibit very
low phase noise. In many oscillators, any spectral energy at the resonant frequency is amplified by the
oscillator, resulting in a collection of tones at different phases. In a crystal oscillator, the crystal mostly
vibrates in one axis, therefore only one phase is dominant. This property of low phase noise makes them
particularly useful in telecommunications where stable signals are needed, and in scientific equipment
where very precise time references are needed.

Environmental changes of temperature, humidity, pressure, and vibration can change the resonant
frequency of a quartz crystal, but there are several designs that reduce these environmental effects. These
include the TCXO, MCXO, and OCXO which are defined below. These designs, particularly the OCXO,
often produce devices with excellent short-term stability. The limitations in short-term stability are due
mainly to noise from electronic components in the oscillator circuits. Long-term stability is limited by
aging of the crystal.

Due to aging and environmental factors (such as temperature and vibration), it is difficult to keep even the
best quartz oscillators within one part in 1010 of their nominal frequency without constant adjustment. For
this reason, atomic oscillators are used for applications requiring better long-term stability and accuracy.

3) Capacitor
33
A capacitor is a passive terminal electrical that stores electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a
capacitor is known as capacitance. While capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors of a
circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a capacitor is specifically designed to provide and enhance this effect
for a variety of practical applications by consideration of size, shape, and positioning of closely spaced
conductors, and the intervening dielectric material. A capacitor was therefore historically first known as an
electric condenser.

The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many capacitor types are in
common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of metallic plates
or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal,
or an electrolyte. The non conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials
commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors
are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal
capacitor does not dissipate energy.

When two conductors experience a potential difference, for example, when a capacitor is attached across a
battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive charge to collect on one plate
and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current actually flows through the dielectric,
however, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If the condition is maintained sufficiently
long, the current through the source circuit ceases. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the
leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and discharging cycles
of the capacitor.

Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units (SI) is the farad (F), defined as
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in general electronics range
from about 1 Pico farad (pF) (1012 F) to about 1 mill farad (mF) (103 F).

34
The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the surface area of the plates (conductors) and inversely
related to the gap between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current. It has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant
circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they stabilize
voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in
early digital computers.

4) ATmega328
ATmega328P in a 28-pin dual inline package (DIP). The ATmega328 is a single-chip
microcontroller created by Atmel in the mega AVR family.
4.1) Specifications
The Atmel 8-bit AVR RISC-based microcontroller combines 32 kB ISP flash memory with read-while-
write capabilities, 1 kB EEPROM, 2 kB SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose
working registers, three flexible timer/counters with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, serial
programmable USART, a byte-oriented 2-wire serial interface, SPI serial port, 6-channel 10-bit A/D
converter (8-channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages), programmable watchdog timer with
internal oscillator, and five software selectable power saving modes. The device operates between 1.8-5.5
volts. The device achieves throughput approaching 1 MIPS per MHz.

A common alternative to the ATmega328 is the "picoPower" ATmega328P. A comprehensive list of all
other member of the mega AVR series can be found on the Atmel website.

35
4.2) Applications
As of 2013 the ATmega328 is commonly used in many projects and autonomous systems where a simple,
low-powered, low-cost micro-controller is needed. Perhaps the most common implementation of this chip is
on the popular Arduino development platform, namely the Arduino Uno and Arduino Nano models.

4.3) Programming
Reliability qualification shows that the projected data retention failure rate is much less than 1 PPM over
20 years at 85 C or 100 years at 25 C. Programming mode is entered when PAGEL (PD7), XA1 (PD6),
XA0 (PD5), BS1 (PD4) is set to zero. RESET pin to 0V and VCC to 0V. VCCis set to 4.5 - 5.5V. Wait 60 s,
and RESET is set to 11.5 - 12.5 V. Wait more than 310 s. Set XA1:XA0:BS1:DATA = 100 1000 0000,
pulse XTAL1 for at least 150 ns, pulse WR to zero. This starts the Chip Erase. Wait until RDY/BSY (PD1)
goes high. XA1:XA0:BS1:DATA = 100 0001 0000, XTAL1 pulse, pulse WR to zero. This is the Flash
write command.

Serial data to the MCU is clocked on the rising edge and data from the MCU is clocked on the falling edge.
Power is applied to VCC while RESET and SCK are set to zero. Wait for at least 20 ms and then the
Programming Enable serial instruction 0xAC, 0x53, 0x00, 0x00 is sent to the MOSI pin. The second byte
(0x53) will be echoed back by the MCU.

5) Power Supply
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load. The primary
function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to another. As a result, power
supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies are discrete, stand-
alone devices, whereas others are built into larger devices along with their loads. Examples of the latter
include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.

36
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while
performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy
from various types of energy sources, including electrical energy transmission systems, energy
storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical systems such
as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or another power supply

All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and a power
output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input and output consist
of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies employ wireless
energy transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for the power input or output. Some power supplies have
other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.

6) Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide
voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors
that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power
distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change
slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit
elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity,
force, or chemical activity. Axial-lead resistors on tape. The component is cut from the tape during
assembly and the part is inserted into the board.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds
and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

37
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance falls
within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

7) Reset Button
Reset buttonIn electronics and technology, a reset button is a button that can reset a device. On video
game consoles, the reset button restarts the game, losing the player's unsaved progress. On personal
computers, the reset button clears the memory and reboots the machine forcibly. Reset buttons are found
on circuit breakers to reset the circuit. This button can cause data corruption so this button often doesn't
exist on many machines. Usually, in computers and other electronic devices, it is present as a small button,
possibly recessed into the case or only accessible by a pin or similar thin object, to prevent it being pressed
accidentally.

8) Microcontroller
A microcontroller (or MCU for microcontroller unit) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. In
modern terminology, it is similar to, but less sophisticated than, a system on a chip or So; an SoC may
include a microcontroller as one of its components. A microcontroller contains one or
more CPUs (processor cores) along with memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Program
memory in the form of Ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well
as a small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to
the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various
discrete chips.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine
control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools,
toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a

38
separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to
digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating
analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power
consumption (single-digit milli watts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain
functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while
sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nano watts, making many of them well suited
for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where
they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power
consumption.

9) Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-
wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and mobile devices, and
building personal area networks (PANs). Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was originally
conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.

Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 30,000 member
companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics.
The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth
SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the
trademarks. A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A
network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices.

39
9.1) Origin
The development of the "short-link" radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils
Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden, and by Johan Ullman. The purpose was to develop
wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE
9202239, issued 1992-07-24. Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap Haartsen and
Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund. The specification is based
on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology.

10) ETCHING-
Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of
a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (incised) in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other
chemicals may be used on other types of material. As a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving,
the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of modern
variants such as micro fabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much
modern technology, including circuit boards.

In traditional pure etching, a metal (usually copper, zinc or steel) plate is covered with a
waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with a pointed etching
needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece, so exposing the bare metal. The
choppe, a tool with a slanted oval section, is also used for "swelling" lines. The plate is then dipped in a
bath of acid, technically called the mordant (French for "biting") or etchant, or has acid washed over it. The
acid "bites" into the metal (it dissolves part of the metal) where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into
the plate. The remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink
wiped off the surface, leaving only the ink in the etched lines.

40
The plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper (often moistened
to soften it). The paper picks up the ink from the etched lines, making a print. The process can be repeated
many times; typically several hundred impressions (copies) could be printed before the plate shows much
sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process; this creates an
etching which exists in more than one state.

Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving (e.g., Rembrandt)
or aquatint (e.g., Francisco Goya)

41
 CHAPTER 3
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The advantages and disadvantages of using LED technology

Here we show the advantages of LED displays, but its not limited to this, LED display is being used in
many ways and its the wave of the future.

Advantages of LEDs technology

1. Energy efficient LEDs are now capable of outputting 135 lumens/watt

2. Long Lifetime 50,000 hours or more if properly engineered

3. Rugged LEDs are also called Solid State Lighting (SSL) as they are made of solid material with
no filament or tube or bulb to break

4. No warm-up period LEDs light instantly in nanoseconds

5. Not affected by cold temperatures LEDs like low temperatures and will startup even in subzero
weather

6. Directional With LEDs you can direct the light where you want it, thus no light is wasted

7. Excellent Color Rendering LEDs do not wash out colors like other light sources such as
fluorescents, making them perfect for displays and retail applications

8. Environmentally friendly LEDs contain no mercury or other hazardous substances

9. Controllable LEDs can be controlled for brightness and color.

10. High brightness makes LED Display possible to be used under sunshine.

11. Customized bigger size allows watching from longer distance.

12. Wider viewing angle with flexible shape achievable like curved, etc meet various installation
requirements.

42
 13. Lighting effects and video broadcasting both, more functions provided.

14. Dynamic colorful multi-media show, provide more information and better effect than the fixed
static banners.

15. Support various input sources, either online or offline operation.

16. Automatic temperature control, brightness adjustment.

17. LED Lamp is a green lighting source with light weight and low power, no heat or radiation; it can
be recycled and reused. By the computer calculating, the 3 primary colors Blue, Green, and Red will show
16777216 colors by any combination, the different color mixes give audiences a wonderful dynamic effects

18. LED means light emitting diode , It is a semiconductor chip in a reflector , It is connected to an
electric wire , When the electricity flows , It causes the diode to illuminate , LED monitors can be large
enough but they will not take too much space on the working desk , So , They will cause better visual
quality for the user.

19. LEDs are high-efficiency light sources , the directional nature of light produced by LEDs allows the
design of luminaires with higher overall efficiency , LEDs are continually declining in price , That makes
LED displays extremely affordable.

20. LEDs radiate a cold light, and they generate very little heat compared with other lighting
technologies , They causes less wasted energy , LEDs have a full range of colors and with appropriate
mixing schemes , So they can generate billions of colors .

21. LEDs have high energy efficient , they are now capable of outputting 135 lumens/watt , They have
long Lifetime , Their lifetime is 50,000 hours or more , LEDs are called Solid State Lighting ( SSL )
because they are made of solid material with no filament or tube or bulb to break .

22. LEDs are not affected by cold temperatures , They will startup even in subzero weather , They are
environmentally friendly as they contain no mercury or other hazardous substances.

23. LED monitors are usually lighter and thinner than LCD monitors , The fluorescent bulbs used in an
LCD monitor are bigger , heavier and They can make the monitor bulkier as compared to the materials
used in LED monitors .

43
 24. LED monitors offer better and sharper colour reproduction as compared to LCD monitors , and the
production of LED monitors has been increased which makes them more affordable choices .

Disadvantages of LEDs technology

1.) LEDs are more expensive than conventional lighting technologies , They must be supplied
with the correct voltage and current at a constant flow , And this requires some electronics
expertise to design the electronic drivers .
2.) LEDs can shift color due to age and temperature , And two different white LED will have
two different color characteristics , So , They affect how the light is perceived . Blue
hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of
exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety
specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for
Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.
3.) Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black
body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm
can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination
than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered
particularly badly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. However, the color
rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now
available in state-of-art white LEDs.
4.) Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature
of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may
result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate
heat-sinking is required to maintain long life. This is especially important when considering
automotive, medical, and military applications where the device must operate over a large
range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate.
5.) Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs (i.e., LEDs with high color temperature) emit
proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure
sodium lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-
white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources. The International Dark-

44
 Sky Association discourages the use of white light sources with correlated color temperature
above 3,000 K.
6.) Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a
current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power
supplies.
7.) High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital
cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially
stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies
needed.
8.) Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a point source of light, but rather a
Lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to use in applications requiring a spherical
light field. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is
contrasted with lasers, which can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less

45
 CHAPTER 4
PROGRAM

void ScanDMD()
{
dmd.scanDisplayBySPI();
}

void setup(void)
{ //initialize TimerOne's interrupt/CPU usage used to scan and refresh the display
Timer1.initialize( 10000 ); //period in microseconds to call ScanDMD. Anything longer than 5000
(5ms) and you can see flicker.
Timer1.pwm(PIN_DMD_nOE, 256);
Timer1.attachInterrupt( ScanDMD ); //attach the Timer1 interrupt to ScanDMD which goes to
dmd.scanDisplayBySPI()
dmd.clearScreen( true ); //true is normal (all pixels off), false is negative (all pixels on)
Serial.begin(9600);
/*for(int i = 0; i<=EEPROM.length(); i++)
{
EEPROM.write(i, '\0');
}*/
}

void loop()
{
if(Serial.available())
{
for(int i=0; i<EEPROM.length(); i++)
{
EEPROM.write(i, '\0');

46
 }
while(Serial.available()>0)
{
inchar=Serial.read();
message[pos]=inchar;
EEPROM.write(pos, message[pos]);
pos++;
message[pos]='\0';
}
}

if(initi==0)
{
lostr=max_char;
}
else
{
if(second==0)
{
lostr=initi;
second++;
}
else
{
initi=0;
}
}

for(int j=0; j<=lostr; j++)

{
message[j]= EEPROM.read(j);

47
 initi++;
if(message[j]=='\0')
{
break;
}
}
if(pos=EEPROM.length())
{
pos=0;
}
// Serial.println(message);
dmd.clearScreen( true );
dmd.selectFont(Arial_Black_16); //displays the message
long start=millis();
long timer=start;
boolean ret=false;
while(!ret)
{
if ((timer+30) < millis())
{
ret=dmd.stepMarquee(-1,0);
timer=millis();
}
}
Serial.println(lostr);
}

48
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig.1

49
PCB DESIGN

Fig.2

50
 REFERENCES

1. Augarten, Stan (1983). The Most Widely Used Computer on a Chip: The TMS 1000. State of the
Art: A Photographic History of the Integrated Circuit. New Haven and New York: Ticknor &
Fields. ISBN 0-89919-195-9. Retrieved 2009-12-23.
2. "Oral History Panel on the Development and Promotion of the Intel 8048
Microcontroller" (PDF). Computer History Museum Oral History, 2008. p. 4. Retrieved 2016-04-04.
3. "Atmel's Self-Programming Flash Microcontrollers" (PDF). 2012-01-24. Retrieved 2008-10-25. by
Odd Jostein Svendsli 2003
4. Jim Turley. "The Two Percent Solution"2002.
5. Tom Cantrell "Microchip on the March". Circuit Cellar. 1998.
6. "ATmega328P". Retrieved 2016-07-14.
7. "Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontrollers ATmega328/P Datasheet Complete" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-07-
14.
8. "megaAVR Microcontrollers". Atmel. Retrieved 2016-07-14.
9. "Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontrollers ATmega328/P Datasheet Summary" (PDF). June 2016.
Retrieved 2016-07-14.
10. The term crystal oscillator refers to the circuit, not the resonator: Graf, Rudolf F. (1999). Modern
Dictionary of Electronics, 7th Ed. US: Newnes. pp. 162, 163. ISBN 0750698667.
11. Amos, S. W.; Roger Amos (2002). Newnes Dictionary of Electronics, 4th Ed. US: Newnes.
p. 76. ISBN 0750656425.
12. Laplante, Phillip A. (1999). Comprehensive Dictionary of Electrical Engineering. US:
Springer. ISBN 3540648356.
13. Nicholson, Alexander M. Generating and transmitting electric currents U.S. Patent 2,212,845, filed
April 10, 1918, granted August 27, 1940
14. Bottom, Virgil E. (1981). "A history of the quartz crystal industry in the USA". Proc. 35th
Frequency Control Symp. IEEE. Archived from the original on 2008-09-20.

51