5 2017 A. Final Lecture Book

SEMESTER - 1
PEL 121
COMMUNICATION
SKILL 1
lECTURE BOOK
DEPARTMENT OF VERBAL ABILITY

PROFESSIONAL ENHANCEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENT
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UNIT I
PARTS OF SPEECH
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UNIT 2
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ARTICLES , DETERMINERS
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AND QUANTIFIERS
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UNIT 3
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TENSES AND CONDITIONALS
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UNIT 4
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SENTENCES AND CLAUSES
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UNIT 5
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MODALS AND PUNCTUATION
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UNIT 6
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VOCABULARY
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DEPARTMENT OF VERBAL ABILITY

PROFESSIONAL ENHANCEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. UNIT 1 PARTS OF SPEECH
1.1 NOUNS 1
1.2 PRONOUN 2
1.3 ADJECTIVE 4
1.4 VERB 6
1.5 ADVERB 8
1.6 PREPOSITION 9
1.7 CONJUNCTION 9
1.8 INTERJECTION 10
2. UNIT 2 ARTICLES, DETERMINERS
AND QUANTIFIERS
2.1 ARTICLES 11
2.2 DETERMINERS 14
2.3 QUANTIFIERS 17
3. UNIT 3 TENSES AND CONDITIONALS
3.1 TENSES 19
3.2 CONDITIONAL 27
4. UNIT 4 SENTENCE AND CLAUSES
4.1 PHRASES AND CLAUSES 32
4.2 SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND AND COMPOUND 34
4.4 TYPES OF SENTENCES 37
5. MODALS AND PUNCTUATION
5.1 MODALS 40
5.2 PUNCTUATION 43
6. UNIT 6 VOCABULARY
6.1 PHRASAL VERBS 50
6.2 IDIOMS 61
6.3 CONDITIONALS 67
Semester 1| Communication Skills 1 PEL 121
Unit 1
Chapter I PARTS OF SPEECH
The part of speech indicates how a word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the
sentence. An individual word can function as more than one part of speech when used in different
circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is essential for determining the correct definition of a
word when using the dictionary.
There are eight parts of speech in the English language but sometimes articles are also included
in the list.
1. Noun
2. Pronoun Activity
3. Verb Name, Place, Animal, Thing, Emotion

4. Adjective
5. Adverb
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection
Let us now look into these:
NOUN
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, animal, emotions or idea. There are different types
of nouns.
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School of Professional Enhancement 1
Types of Noun:
1. Proper Nouns
Proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refer to specific names of persons, places,
or things.
Examples: Volkswagen, Shakeys Pizza, Raphael
2. Common nouns
Common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just generic names of persons,
things, or places.
Examples: car, pizza parlor, TV series
3. Concrete nouns
This kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five senses.
Examples: folder, sand, board
4. Abstract nouns
Unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you cant perceive through your five
senses.
Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery
5. Countable nouns
It refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form.
Examples: kitten, video, ball
6. Uncountable/Mass nouns
This is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-countable nouns, and
they need to have counters to quantify them.
Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter
Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter
7. Collective nouns
Refers to a group of persons, animals, or things.
Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of lions)
8. Gerunds
Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. Verb +ing acting as a noun
are gerunds.
Examples: Dreaming is an act at the subconscious level.
Singing of the birds is melodious
PRONOUN
A pronoun is a part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun. The word or words
that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. The pronoun must match the antecedent in
number and gender.
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There are different types of pronouns:

1. Personal
They refer to a specific person or thing by indicating the person speaking, the person being
addressed, or any other person or thing being discussed.
Cases:
Subject Object
I, you, he, she, it, we, they me, you, him, her, it, us, them
2. Possessive
They are used to indicate possession or ownership.
Singular Plural
My, mine Our, ours
Your, yours Your, yours
His, her, hers, its Their, theirs
3. Reflexive
It refers or reflects back to a noun or pronoun already mentioned. It adds new information
and cannot be removed from the sentence.
Singular Plural
Myself Ourselves
Yourself Yourselves
Himself, herself, itself Themselves
Example: I consider myself to be a great student.

4. Intensive
These pronouns add emphasis and they can be removed from the sentence.
Singular Plural
Myself Ourselves
Yourself Yourselves
Himself, herself, itself Themselves
Example: Mom drove me to school herself.
5. Demonstrative
They point out specific persons, places, things, or ideas.
Singular Plural
This (near) these (near)
That (far) those (far)
Example: That is my car.

Those are his shoes.
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6. Interrogative
They are used to form questions. Words like Who, Whom, Whose, What, Which are known
as interrogative pronouns.
Example: Whose jacket is this?
Which of those girls do you like?
7. Relative
They are used to begin a special subject-verb word group called a subordinate clause.
Words like Who, whoever, Whose, Whom, whomever, That, Which, whichever, What,
whatever are used as relative pronouns.
Example: Whoever borrowed my book needs to return it.
ADJECTIVE
An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. It usually answers the question of which
one, what kind, or how many.
(Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as adjectives.)
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
Positioning:
Before a noun - She has a beautiful handwriting
After a verb - Her handwriting is beautiful
Royal order of adjectives
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Types of adjectives
Descriptive These adjectives describe nouns that refer Dangerous chemicals.

to action, state, or quality. Green vegetables
Quantity An adjective of quantity tells us the number He has eaten three apples.
(how many) or amount (how much) of a I dont have much money.
noun.
Demonstrative A demonstrative adjective (this, that, these, This red balloon is mine and
those) shows the noun it modifies is singular those three yellow; ones are
or plural and whether the position of the yours.
noun is near or far from the person who is These two fat cats have tails,
speaking or writing. A demonstrative but that this cat doesnt have a
adjective also points out a fact about the tail.
noun.
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Possessive A possessive adjective expresses possession This must be your cap.

of a noun by someone or something. His arms have a few tattoos.
Possessive adjectives are the same as
possessive pronouns
Adjectives as Noun Some adjectives are used as nouns to Its skin is dry and rough.
describe groups of people. Each of these The injured were in the
groups follows the determiner the (definite thousands.
article). Every year, millions join the
ranks of the unemployed
worldwide.
Compound adjectives Compound adjectives are used to modify A heart-breaking news.

nouns. They are called compound because An English-speaking country.
they are made up of two or more words,
usually with hyphens between them.
Adjectival Clause An adjective clause (also called adjectival Students who work hard get
clause) is a dependent clause which good grades. (The adjective
modifies a noun and usually begins with a clause who work hard
relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, modifies the noun students.)
whose) or a relative adverb (where, when, The book which you lent me is
why). very interesting.
(The adjective clause which you
lent me modifies the noun (the
book)).
VERB
A verb expresses action or the state of being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or more
helping verbs.
Example: "She can sing."
Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.
A verb must agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural).
Example: The boys were playing Football.
Subject: the boys plural
Verb: were playing - plural
Verbs also take different forms to express tense. They take the required forms : they are
conjugated accordingly.
Example: The calf ran after the cow.
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1. Transitive verb
A Transitive Verb can take an object after it to complete its meaning.
Example: The hunter killed a bear.
The scholar learned his lesson.
2. Intransitive verb
An Intransitive Verb cannot take a direct object after it and therefore does not require an
object to complete its meaning.
Examples: He sleeps
We go.
No object can come after such verbs as sleep or go.
Note: There can be indirect objects after the intransitive verbs.
Example: He sleeps in the bed.
The bed indirect object.
Conjugation of verbs
Base Form be Do Have
Present is/ am/ are do/ does Has
Past was/ were did Had

Infinitive to be to do to have
Present Participle being doing Having
Past Participle been done Had
Regular Verbs
A regular verb forms we can add -d or -ed to the end of its base form. The present participle is
formed by adding -ing to the end of its base form and the past is formed by adding -ed. If the
base form verb ends with the letter -e, we can add only -d for past form verb and remove the -e
then just add -ing for the present participle.
Present Past Past Participle Present Participle
Book Booked Booked Booking
Erase Erased Erased Erasing
1. When a verb ends with a vowel followed by a consonant, the last consonant is doubled
before adding - ing or ed.
Present (V1) Past (V2) Past Participle (V3) Present Participle
Allot Allotted Allotted (V1-ing)
allotting
Bat Batted Batted batting
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Irregular Verbs
1. Irregular verbs with similar present, past and past participle forms
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
Beset Beset Beset besetting
Broadcast Broadcast Broadcast/ broadcasting
Burst Burst broadcasted
Burst bursting
2. Irregular verbs with similar past and past participle forms
Present Past Tense Past Participle Present
Behold
Tense Beheld Beheld beholding
Participle
Beseech Besought Besought beseeching
3. Irregular verbs with similar present and past participle forms

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
Come Came Come Coming
Overcome Overcame Overcome Overcoming
4. Irregular verbs with three distinct forms
Present Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
Tense
Arise Arose Arisen Arising
Awake Awoke Awoken Awakening
Blow Blew Blown Blowing
Choose Chose Chosen Choosing
Do Did Done Doing
5. Vowel changes from I to a to u
Present Past Past Participle
Begin Began Begun
Drink Drank Drunk
Ring Rang Rung
Shrink Shrank Shrunk
ADVERB
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb but never a noun. It usually
answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.
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The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
Types of adverbs:
1. Adverbs of degree
Very, highly, totally, perfectly, partially, almost.
2. Adverbs of manner
Well, badly, nicely, slowly, loudly, quietly, happily, sadly, secretly, weakly.
3. Adverbs of place
Home, here, there, outside, inside, away, around, anywhere, abroad, up, down, out.
4. Adverbs of time
Now, soon, later, yesterday, tomorrow, early, before, lately, recently.
5. Adverbs of frequency
Always, never, sometimes, often, rarely, usually, occasionally.
6. Adverbs of duration
Forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly.
7. Adverbs of probability
Certainly, maybe, probably, possibly, surely.
8. Comparative Adverbs
"Comparative" means "comparing something to something else. Comparative adverbs
show us which action or state is better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so forth.
Examples: more, less, better, worse, faster, slower, farther, and closer
Example: Maggie works out more seriously than Donna.
She eats less than her friends.
9. Superlative Adverbs
"Superlatives" means "of the highest degree Superlative adverbs show us which action
or state is the best, the strongest, and so forth.
Examples: Best, most, least, worst, strongest, fastest, and slowest.
PREPOSITION
Prepositions are mostly small single words used before a noun (at home), a noun phrase
(across the river) or a pronoun (for you). They may also consist of two or more words acting as a
single preposition called compound preposition.
Prepositions are used to form relationships between the nouns and other words in a sentence by
linking them.
There are many prepositions, most of which are single-word such as above, along,
behind, from, near, of, on, since, to, until, and with.
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A preposition is followed by a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun, each of which becomes the object
of the preposition. Only the noun can be the object; other parts of speech such as verb, adjective,
or adverb cannot be the object.
CONJUNCTION
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined.
1. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or, nor, for,
so, yet. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet.
These words can be remembered by remembering FANBOYS (F = for; A = and; and so on).
Example: They kicked and punched him. (Connecting words)
The mother bought her a strawberry ice cream and a bear lollipop.
(Connecting phrases)
He left early, for he had to be on time for the meeting
There were only small beans in the soup but delicious
2. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because, although, while,
since,
Example: She has aged a lot since the last time we met.
Even though she is quite fat, she can run quickly upstairs.
3. Correlative conjunctions are paired conjunctions. The correlative conjunctions connect

two words, phrases or clauses: either or; neither nor; both and; not only but
also, and whether or etc.
Example: You can buy either this chick or that duckling.

Either John or Johnny plays as goalkeeper in the match.
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.
Example: Wow! That boat is big! Good grief! The sails are huge!
If the interjection shows mild feeling, it begins the sentence and is followed by a comma.
Example: Ah, the breeze is nice. Well, lets go sailing!
Common Interjections
Hurray Hey Oh, no Well
Good grief Ah Oops Whew
Okay Oh Ouch Wow
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Unit 2
Chapter 2- ARTICLES, DETERMINERS
AND QUANTIFIERS
INDEFINITE ARTICLE
The indefinite articles a and an are used to introduce something that has not been mentioned
before. They are not used before a plural noun. We use a before a word that begins with a
consonant. We use an before a word that begins with a vowel, or a word that begins with a
consonant but has vowel sound (e.g. hour, honor, etc.)
When a is used before a noun, it does not refer to that one particular noun; it uses this noun as
representing all the others.
A house in that new housing estate should have at least three bedrooms. (The article a does not
point out this one house but all houses in that housing estate.)
We use a:
1. When we mention something for the first time.

I saw a fairy.
2. Before a word which begins with a consonant.

There is a policeman waiting for you
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3. Before a word with a long sound of u (consonant sound).

It would be a unique opportunity to travel in space.
4. Before the word one because one sounds as if it begins with a W (wun) (consonant sound).
I have a one-way ticket to travel from one place to another.
5. The indefinite article a also means one.

I have told you a/one hundred times to leave me alone!
6. Sometimes, it is better to use a instead of one.

He had a bath before he went to bed.
7. We can use a before a proper noun in some special cases.

I still remember it was on a December morning when I drove through the fog into a tree.
We use an:
1. Before a noun which begins with a vowel sound

They say an apple a day keeps the doctor away.
2. Before a singular noun (person or thing) to mean only one in quantity

She's an only child.
3. Before a noun that is representative of a group, species, etc.

An ostrich has only two toes on each foot.
4. Before a noun that begins with a silent h

an hour, an honest man, an heir, an honor, an honorable man
5. Before abbreviations, some of which begin with a consonant

I have an X-ray on my lungs.
Special cases:
Articles are not always necessary. There are occasions when a noun in a sentence need not be
preceded by a definite article (the) or indefinite article (a, an). In such a case, the term zero
article is used
No article is used when making generalization with plural countable nouns and singular
uncountable nouns.
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Examples:
Flying is far safer than driving. (Uncountable noun)
Cars are still expensive for lower-income people. (Countable noun)
Examples:
Correct: He travels to work by train.
Incorrect: He travels to work by a/the train.
Correct: She loves taking photos of caterpillars.
Incorrect: She loves taking photos of the caterpillars
Zero article:
1. Before name of materials
Correct: Gold is found in Australia.
Incorrect: The gold is found in Australia.-
2. Before abstract nouns used in a general sense

Correct: Money cannot buy happiness.
Incorrect: Money cannot buy the happiness.
3. Before proper nouns.

He is a fan of Michael Jackson.
4. Before illness
Correct: She came down with measles and had to stay in bed.
Incorrect: She came down with the measles and had to stay in bed.
5. Before the name of cities, states, countries, islands, or mountains

Correct: India achieved independence in 1947.
Incorrect: The India achieved independence in 1947.
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DEFINITE ARTICLE
The, the definite article is one of the most common, if not the most common, words in
English. The identifies a definite or particular noun that has been mentioned earlier. It is not
about a noun that has not been mentioned beforehand or a noun that we are unaware of.
Examples:
He watched a movie. The movie was about the death of a ghost.

(The movie mentioned in the second sentence is clear as it refers to the movie he watched.)
We use the:
1. When there is only one such person, place or thing

the Pope, the President of the United States, the North Pole, the earth, the sky
2. Before names of famous buildings, etc:

the Eiffel Tower, the Great Wall of China
3. Before a singular noun that refers to a whole class or group of people or things
the middle class, the homeless, the Canadians, the Hindus
4. Before the special names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, group of islands
the Nile, the Dead Sea, the Pacific Ocean, the Himalayas
5. Before certain organizations, political parties, and countries

the United Nations, the Republican Party, the USSR, the UAR
6. Before nouns such as places which we know of

We arrived early at the ferry terminal for our trip to the island.
We went to the cinema, after which we went to the stadium for a football match.
7. Before abbreviations and initials of countries

the BBC (the British Broadcasting Corporation),
the EEC (the European Economic Community),
the UAR, the UK, the USA, the USSR
PRONOUNCIATION:
For vowel sound we pronounce it as thee.
For consonant sound we pronounce it as thuh.
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DETERMINERS
Determiners are a group of words which include articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, those),
possessive adjectives (my, their), numbers (one, two), and other words (any, both) that come
before a noun, follow another determiner, or begin a noun phrase.
Determiners include quantifiers, which are words or phrases used before a noun to show its
quantity. Examples of quantifiers are: all, many, much, most, one, some, a few, and a lot of, etc.
Determiners and quantifiers are useful in letting us know more about the noun that they refer.
For example, this thing identifies something that is close at hand; her wig means the wig
belongs to her; another donkey tells of one more donkeys; and a few marbles refers to a small
number of marble.
Definite and indefinite articles: (the, a, an)
The definite article the as a determiner can be used before singular or plural nouns such as
people or things, and before countable and uncountable nouns.
We use the determiner the:
1. To refer to people or things which we know because they have already been mentioned.
There is a man doing magic at the marketplace. I know the man; he is my uncle.
2. To refer to a person or thing when there is only one.

He is the ex-husband of my friends sister.
3. Before superlatives, words such as first, only, etc.

Peacocks have the most beautiful feathers.
4. Before adjectives so that the adjectives become nouns.

Sometimes I hate myself for dreaming the impossible.
5. Before a singular noun that is representative of a group of similar people or things.

A large and flightless bird, the dodo is now extinct.
6. Before proper nouns.

The Robinsons are the latest members of the ghost-hunting club.
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We use the determiners a/an:

To refer to someone or things that we know nothing about as they have not been mentioned
before, or they are not particular persons or things.
Examples:
She brought home a puppy.
They saw a man attempting to commit burglary at a house near by.
There was an explosion in a nearby factory.
1. Before an uncountable noun.

The husband and wife share a liking for raw fish.
2. Before an action noun.
She had a quick glance at me, and then looked away.
3. Before a quantity.
He uttered a few foreign words before he passed away.
4. Before a proper noun such as a persons name.

A Mr. Wilson called while you were away.
DEMONSTRATIVE
This, that, these and those are called demonstratives. As determiners, this and that appear
before singular nouns, and these and those being plurals of this and that respectively come
before plural nouns.
Examples:
This color is not found in the rainbow.
That hill was shaped almost like a human head.
These footprints are left by a three-toed creature.
They were trying to hatch those dinosaur eggs.
We use the demonstratives this and these to refer to specific people, things, etc. that are close
to us, and that and those that are not near to us.
Examples:
Look at this photo of Nessie.
I will ask that policeman the way to the police station.
Listen to these voices and tell me whose.
Those strange noises came from the roof.
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Nouns need not follow these determiners if the meaning is understood.

Examples:
Whose is this?
Dont touch these.
Look at that.
Those are not mine.
The determiners can also come before one.

Example:
This one smells the same as that one.
The words this, that, these, those besides being determiners, are also used as pronouns. One
good way to distinguish between them is determiner, unlike pronoun, comes before nouns.
Determiner Pronoun
This potato is still hot. This is a hot potato.
That duckling is ugly. That is a very ugly duckling.
These apples are rotten. These are rotten apples.
Those dark clouds are gathering
Those are dark clouds gathering overhead.
overhead.
Possessive determiners indicate possession and we use them before the nouns. A few examples
of possessive determiners are: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
Examples:
Who broke my new cup?
Your dog has more fleas than mine.
His left leg was broken in two places in the accident.
She looks just like her mother.
Its back was bitten by another dog.
Our dinner was delayed because mum was stuck in a traffic jam.
Their parents refused to visit him in prison.
NOTE: determiners and demonstrative pronouns are one or the same thing.
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QUANTIFIERS
COUNTABLE:
Quantifiers used with countable nouns include a, an, one, each, every, both, a couple of, a
few, several, many, a number of, a large number of, and a great number of.
Examples:
A rubber duck is floating in the bath.
An evil monster like him has no friends.
One page is missing from my cookery book.
He had a tattoo of a dragon on each arm.
Every child received a lollipop.
Both donkeys are braying at the same time.
A couple of people began to talk louder and louder after the third round of drinks.
Someone stole several piglets from his farm.
I think he is putting too many eggs in one basket.
A number of her friends agreed with her that she looked overweight.
Illegal loggers cut down a large number of trees.
A great number of locusts swarmed the area.
Usage of Few and a few:

Few and a few come before plural countable nouns. Few (without a) conveys a negative
meaning of only a small number or hardly any; a few has a positive meaning of having
some but enough.
Examples:
There were a few casualties in the train accident. (= Not many died or injured.)
Few passers-by stopped to look at my paintings. (= Almost no passers-by were interested.)
UNCOUNTABLE:
Quantifiers used with uncountable nouns include a little, a bit of, much, a great deal of, and
a large amount of.
Examples:
There was a bit of cheese on your upper lip.
I dont have much money to keep in my big wallet.
A great deal of her work is massaging the back of patients.
The drugs were sold for a large amount of hard cash.
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Usage of Little and a little

Little and a little are expressions of quantity used before uncountable nouns. Little has a
negative meaning implying scarcely any is available or almost none. A little means a small
amount.
Examples:
There seemed (very) little hope of recovery for the accident victim.
There is a little pork in the fridge for the supper dish. (Positive - small amount but enough for
supper)
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Unit 3
Chapter 3- TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT:
The simple present is a verb tense with two main uses. We use the simple present tense when an
action is happening right now, or when it happens regularly (or unceasingly, which is why its
sometimes called present indefinite). Depending on the person, the simple present tense is
formed by using the root form or by adding -s or -es to the end.
Example:
I feel great! Pauline loves pie. Im sorry to hear that youre sick.
The other is to talk about habitual actions or occurrences.
Example:
Pauline practices the piano every day.
Ms. Jackson travels during the summer.
Hamsters run all night.
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PRESENT CONTINUOUS:
The present continuous verb tense indicates that an action or condition is happening now,
frequently, and may continue into the future.
The Present Continuous Formula: to be [am, is, are] + verb [present participle]
Example:
Aunt Christine is warming up the car while Scott looks for his new leather coat. They are
eating at Scotts favorite restaurant today, Pollys Pancake Diner.
Key words: Verb, present participle, tense, dynamic verbs, stative verbs
The present continuous (present progressive) tense is a way to convey any action or condition
that is happening right now, frequently, and may be ongoing. It adds energy and action to
writing, and its effect helps readers understand when the action is happening. Imagine Aunt
Christine has surprised her nephew Scott for his birthday and is going to take him out to his
favorite restaurant, Pollys Pancake Diner. If I wanted to tell the story after it happened, Id use
the past tense:
They waited at the red light, and Scott worried they might miss their reservation. (Past tense)
PRESENT PERFECT:
The present perfect tense refers to an action or state that either occurred at an indefinite time in
the past (e.g., we have talked before) or began in the past and continued to the present time
(e.g., he has grown impatient over the last hour). This tense is formed by have/has + the past
participle.
The construction of this verb tense is straightforward. The first element is have or has, depending
on the subject the verb is conjugated with. The second element is the past participle of the verb,
which is usually formed by adding -ed or -d to the verbs root (e.g., walked, cleaned, typed,
perambulated, jumped, laughed, sauted) although English does have quite a few verbs that have
irregular past participles (e.g., done, said, gone, known, won, thought, felt, eaten).
Example:
I have walked on this path before.
We have eaten the lasagna here.
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The important thing to remember about the present perfect is that you cant use it when you are
being specific about when it happened.
Example:
I have put away all the laundry.
I have put away all the laundry this morning.
You can use the present perfect to talk about the duration of something that started in the past is
still happening.
Example:
She has had the chickenpox since Tuesday.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS:

The present perfect continuous is used to refer to an unspecified time between 'before now' and
'now'. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that
period of time. He/she is interested in the process as well as the result, and this process may still
be going on, or may have just finished.
The present perfect continuous formula is: has/ have+ been + v [present participle]+ing.
ACTIONS THAT STARTED IN THE PAST AND CONTINUE IN THE PRESENT
Example:
She has been waiting for you all day (= and she's still waiting now).
I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (= and I still haven't finished
it).
They have been travelling since last October (= and they're not home yet).
ACTIONS THAT HAVE JUST FINISHED, BUT WE ARE INTERESTED IN THE RESULTS
Example:
She has been cooking since last night (= and the food on the table looks delicious).
It's been raining (= and the streets are still wet).
Someone's been eating my chips (= half of them have gone).
SIMPLE PAST:
The simple past is a verb tense that is used to talk about things that happened or existed before
now. Imagine someone asks what your brother Wolfgang did while he was in town last weekend.
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Example:
Wolfgang entered a hula hoop contest.
He won the silver medal.
The simple past tense shows that you are talking about something that has already happened.
Unlike the past continuous tense, which is used to talk about past events that happened over a
period of time, the simple past tense emphasizes that the action is finished.
Example:
Wolfgang admired the way the light glinted off his silver medal.
You can also use the simple past to talk about a past state of being, such as the way someone felt
about something. This is often expressed with the simple past tense of the verb to be and an
adjective, noun, or prepositional phrase.
Example:
Wolfgang was proud of his hula hoop victory.
The contest was the highlight of his week.
PAST CONTINUOUS
The past continuous tense, also known as the past progressive tense, refers to a continuing action
or state that was happening at some point in the past. The past continuous tense is formed by
combining the past tense of to be (i.e., was/were) with the verbs present participle (-ing word).
There are many situations in which this verb tense might be used in a sentence. For example, it is
often used to describe conditions that existed in the past.
Example:
The sun was shining every day that summer.
As I spoke, the children were laughing at my cleverness.
It can also be used to describe something that was happening continuously in the past when
another action interrupted it.
Example:
The audience was applauding until he fell off the stage.
I was making dinner when she arrived.
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The past continuous can shed light on what was happening at a precise time in the past.
Example:
At 6 oclock, I was eating dinner.
It can also refer to a habitual action in the past.
Example:
She was talking constantly in class in those days.
One final caution: Though the irregularities are few, not every verb is suited to describing a
continuous action. Certain verbs cant be used in the past continuous tense. One common
example is the verb to arrive.
Example:
At noon, he was arriving.
At noon, he arrived.
PAST PERFECT
The past perfect, also called the pluperfect, is a verb tense used to talk about actions that were
completed before some point in the past.
Example:
We were shocked to discover that someone had graphitized Tootles was here on our front
door. We were relieved that Tootles had used washable paint.
The past perfect tense is for talking about something that happened before something else.
Imagine waking up one morning and stepping outside to grab the newspaper. On your way back,
you notice a mysterious message scrawled across your front door: Tootles was here. When youre
telling this story to your friends later, how would you describe this moment? You might say
something like:
Example:
I turned back to the house and saw that some someone named Tootles had defaced my
front door!
In addition to feeling indignant on your behalf, your friends will also be able to understand
that Tootles graphitized the door at some point in the past before the moment this morning
when you saw his handiwork, because you used the past perfect tense to describe the
misdeed.
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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The past perfect continuous tense (also known as the past perfect progressive tense) shows that
an action that started in the past continued up until another time in the past. The past perfect
continuous tense is constructed using had been + the verbs present participle (root + -ing).
Unlike the present perfect continuous, which indicates an action that began in the past and
continued up to the present, the past perfect continuous is a verb tense that indicates something
that began in the past, continued in the past, and also ended at a defined point in the past.
Example:
He had been drinking milk out the carton when Mom walked into the kitchen.
I had been working at the company for five years when I got the promotion.
When, for, since, and before are words that you may see used alongside the past perfect
continuous tense.
Example:
Martha had been walking three miles a day before she broke her leg.
The program that was terminated had been working well since 1945.
Cathy had been playing the piano for 35 years when she was finally asked to do a solo with
the local orchestra.
He had been throwing rocks at her window for five minutes before she finally came out on
the balcony and said, Hey, Romeo.
SIMPLE FUTURE
The simple future is a verb tense thats used to talk about things that havent happened yet.
This year, Jen will read War and Peace. It will be hard, but shes determined to do it.
Use the simple future to talk about an action or condition that will begin and end in the future.
The simple future tense is a verb tense that is used when an action is expected to occur in the
future and be completed. For example, lets suppose you have a meeting tomorrow at five
oclock.
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Example:
I will arrive at five oclock.
I will arrive is the simple future tense of the verb to arrive. You arrive once; beyond that,
you cant keep on arriving. However, once you get there, you may be doing something that
goes on continuously, at least for a certain period of time.
FUTUTRE CONTINUOUS
The future continuous tense, sometimes also referred to as the future progressive tense, is a verb
tense that indicates that something will occur in the future and continue for an expected length
of time. It is formed using the construction will + be + the present participle (the root verb + -ing).
Example:
At five oclock, I will be meeting with the management about my raise.
Will be meeting is the future continuous tense of the verb to meet. The construction will +
be + the present participle meeting indicates that the meeting isnt going to happen in an
instant, all at once. It will have duration. The will + be + present participle construction
always indicates the future continuous tense.
Example:
Michael will be running a marathon this Saturday.
Eric will be competing against Michael in the race.
I will be watching Michael and Eric race.
FUTURE PERFECT
The future perfect is a verb tense used for actions that will be completed before some other
point in the future.
The parade will have ended by the time Chester gets out of bed. At eight oclock I will have left.
Key words: Verb, past participle, tense, preposition
The future perfect tense is for talking about an action that will be completed between now and
some point in the future. Imagine that your friend Linda asks you to take care of her cat for a few
days while she goes on a trip. She wants you to come over today at noon so she can show you
where to find the cat food and how to mash it up in the bowl just right so that Fluffy will deign to
eat it. But youre busy this afternoon, so you ask Linda if you can come at eight oclock tonight
instead.
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FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The future perfect continuous, also sometimes called the future perfect progressive, is a verb
tense that describes actions that will continue up until a point in the future. The future perfect
continuous consists of will + have + been + the verbs present participle (verb root + -ing).
When we describe an action in the future perfect continuous tense, we are projecting ourselves
forward in time and looking back at the duration of that activity. The activity will have begun
sometime in the past, present, or in the future, and is expected to continue in the future.
Example:
In November, I will have been working at my company for three years.
At five oclock, I will have been waiting for thirty minutes.
When I turn thirty, I will have been playing piano for twenty-one years.
Non-action Verbs Do Not Use the Future Perfect Continuous
Remember that non-action verbs like to be, to seem, or to know are not suited to the future
perfect continuous tense. Instead, these verbs take the future perfect tense, which is formed
with will + have + past participle.
Example:
On Thursday, I will have been knowing you for a week.
On Thursday, I will have known you for a week.
I will have been reading forty-five books by Christmas.
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Unit 3
Chapter 4- CONDITIONALS
If
BY RUDYARD KIPLING
If you can keep your head when all about you If you can make one heap of all your winnings
Are losing theirs and blaming it on you, And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss,
If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, And lose, and start again at your beginnings
But make allowance for their doubting too; And never breathe a word about your loss;
If you can wait and not be tired by waiting, If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew
Or being lied about, dont deal in lies, To serve your turn long after they are gone,
Or being hated, dont give way to hating, And so hold on when there is nothing in you
And yet dont look too good, nor talk too wise: Except the Will which says to them: Hold on!
If you can dreamand not make dreams your If you can talk with crowds and keep your
master; virtue,
If you can thinkand not make thoughts your Or walk with Kingsnor lose the common
aim; touch,
If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you,
And treat those two impostors just the same; If all men count with you, but none too much;
If you can bear to hear the truth youve spoken If you can fill the unforgiving minute
Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools, With sixty seconds worth of distance run,
Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken, Yours is the Earth and everything thats in it,
And stoop and build em up with worn-out tools: Andwhich is moreyoull be a Man, my son!
The conditional tense says that an action is reliant on something else. The conditionals are used to
talk about real or unreal situations; they are sometimes called if-clauses. Real Conditional describes
real-life situations. Unreal Conditional describes unreal, imaginary situations.
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Example:
If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.
There are four basic conditionals that we use in English.
Zero Conditional
First Conditional
Second Conditional
Third Conditional
ZERO CONDITIONAL:
If + present simple + present simple
FIRST CONDITIONAL:
If + present simple + will
SECOND CONDITIONAL:
If + past simple + would + base form
THIRD CONDITIONAL:
If + past perfect + would have + past participle
THIRD AND SECOND MIXED CONDITIONAL:
If + past perfect + would + base form
SECOND AND THIRD MIXED CONDITIONAL:
If + past simple + would have + past participle
ZERO CONDITIONAL:
The Zero Conditional is used for actions that are always true when the conditions are satisfied.
The structure of the conditionals is straightforward. There are two basic possibilities in terms of
order in the sentence:
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TIME: Certainty and anytime
IF Condition Result Possibilit

y
If You heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils. fact-

universal
present simple present simple
If I drink coffee, I get a headache. fact-

personal
FIRST CONDITIONAL: (REAL POSSIBILITY)

A First Conditional sentence is for future actions dependent on the result of another future action
or event, where there is a reasonable possibility of the conditions for the action being satisfied.
TIME: A real possibility in the future
IF Condition Result Possibility

she gets good she will go to If the condition is met, then she definitely will
If
grades, university. go
he gets good he may go to
If He is not sure about going to university.
grades, university.
she gets good she should go to The speaker is expressing his or her opinion,
If
grades, university. giving advice.
he gets good
If he can go to university. This means that it is possible.
grades,
she gets good she could go to This means that it is possible,
If
grades, university. but not that likely.
he gets good he might go to This means that it is possible,
If
grades, university. but not that likely.
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SECOND CONDITIONAL: (UNREAL POSSIBILITY)
The Second Conditional can be used to talk about imaginary present situations, where we are
imagining something different from what is really the case. We can also use it to talk about things
in the future that are unlikely to happen, as the condition is unlikely to be met. We use the past
tense in the condition part and would for the result.
TIME: Imaginary Present or Unlikely Future
IF Condition Time Result Possibility

past simple present WOULD + base verb Impossible
I had the I don't have the time, so I'm not going to
If I would learn Italian.
time, learn Italian.
past simple Future WOULD + base verb Unlikely
I won the I would travel around There's a very small chance of winning
If
lottery the world. the lottery, so the trip is unlikely
We can use other modal verbs in the past tense in the result part of the sentence:
IF Condition Result Certainty

past simple WOULD + base verb
Although unlikely to happen, the speaker
I had the
If I would learn Italian. is sure that they would do it given the
time,
opportunity.
I had more Although unlikely to happen, it is only
If I might learn English.
time, a possibility anyway.
Although unlikely to happen, the speaker is
I had more I should learn some more
If saying that it would be a good idea, but is
time, about IT.
not committed to it.
I had more Although unlikely to happen, it is only
If I could learn Hindi.
time a possibility anyway.
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THIRD CONDITIONAL: (NO POSSIBILITY)
The third conditional is used when we are talking about the past and imagining something
different from what actually happened, that means for imaginary past actions, where the
conditions for the action WERE NOT satisfied.
TIME: Imaginary Past
IF Condition Result Certainty

WOULD HAVE+ past
past perfect
participle
Although this didn't happen, the speaker
If I had known, I would have helped.
is sure about the result.
Although this didn't happen, the result is only
If I had known, I could have helped.
a possibility.
Although this didn't happen, the result is only
If I had known, I might have helped.
a possibility.
you should have Although this didn't happen, it is only a
If you had known,
helped. good suggestion or piece of advice.
THIRD SECOND MIXED CONDITIONALS
For imaginary present actions or situations that are not possible because the necessary conditions
were not met in the past.
Example:
If you had taken the course, you would know about it.
(The conditions were not met because the person did not do the course and as a result does not
know about it now.)
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SECOND THIRD MIXED CONDITIONALS
To avoid the illogicality of saying 'If I had been you', which means that I was not you on that
occasion, but could be in the future, which is, of course, impossible.
Example:
If I were you, I wouldn't have done that.
When the first part is still true
Example:
If I could speak English, I wouldn't have needed to get the letter translated.
(This means that I couldn't speak English then when I needed the translator and still can't)
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Unit 4
Chapter 5- Types of Sentences
A sentence can be categorized in two ways i.e. a clause and a phrase.
What is a phrase? a noun, verb, or preposition with all its modifiers. It does not have a subject
and verb which agree.
What is a clause? a group of words that has at least one subject and one predicate, and the
verb and subject always agree. Independent clause expresses complete meaning unlike a
dependent clause.
There are two types of clauses:
1. Independent clause
2. Dependent clause
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INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a
complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.
Example:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.
DEPENDENT CLAUSE
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a
complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is
marked by a dependent marker word.
Example:
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he
studied? The thought is incomplete.)
DEPENDENT MARKER WORD
A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes
it into a dependent clause.
Example:
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy.
Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even
though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether,
and while.
INDEPENDENT MARKER WORD
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent

clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second
independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed
before the independent marker word.
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Example:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate
because of the noise.
Some common independent markers are:

also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.
Connecting dependent and independent clauses
There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent
clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words.
Coordinating Conjunction
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an
independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in
a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating
conjunction:
Example:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because
of the noise.
Sentences can be of different kinds. There are two ways to identify the kind of sentence:
1. On the basis of structure
2. On the basis of their function
**On the basis of their structure it can be further divided into the following categories:
SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb. It expresses a single complete thought that can
stand on its own.
Examples:
1. The baby cried for food.
There is a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
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2. Professor Maples intelligent students completed and turned in their homework.
A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. It can have adjectives. In this case, there
are two verbs completed and turned in. However, the sentence expresses one complete
thought and therefore is a simple sentence.
Example:
Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick.
Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is still a simple sentence because both verbs
share the same subjects and express one complete thought.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
A compound sentence has two independent clauses. An independent clause is a part of a

sentence that can stand alone because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete
thought. Basically, a compound contains two simple sentences. These independent clauses are
joined by a conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
Examples:
1. The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw the police.
Both sides of the conjunction so are complete sentences. The shoplifter had stolen clothes
can stand alone and so can he ran once he saw the police. Therefore, this is a compound
sentence.
2. They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English.
This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to separate two individual clauses.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A

dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or has both a subject and a verb that does not
express a complete thought.
A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as, because, since, after, although, when) or
relative pronouns (who, that, which).
Examples:
1. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the gym to exercise.
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The independent clause is Tim went to the gym to exercise. The subordinating clause before it is
dependent on the main, independent clause. If one were to say after eating lunch at The
Cheesecake Factory, it would be an incomplete thought.
2. Opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies that privilege male

accomplishments.
The subject is opinionated women and the verb is are given. The first part of the sentence
opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies is an independent clause that
expresses a complete thought. The following that privilege male accomplishments is a relative
clause that describes which types of societies.
3. The woman who taught Art History 210 was fired for stealing school supplies.
The dependent clause in this sentence is who taught Art History 210 because if removed, the
rest of the sentence would stand as an independent clause. Who taught Art History 210 is an
adjective clause that provides necessary details about the subject, woman.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Examples:
1. After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other teammates for lunch,
and they went to the movies.
If we remove the dependent clause after the two soccer players lost their game, we have a
compound sentence. The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-complex.
2. The man believed in the system, and he knew that justice would prevail after the
murderer was sent to jail.
Practice:
Identify whether the sentences are simple, complex, compound or compound-complex. Please
underline dependent clauses where it applies.
1. Vampires Dairies is my favorite television show, but I also love True Blood.
2. The student wiped the white board that was filthy with last weeks notes.
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3. The trendy fashion designer released her new line on Wednesday.
4. Trina and Hareem went to a bar in Hollywood to celebrate their anniversary.
5. Wicked Regina cast a spell on the entire city, so the citizens decided to rebel.
6. While waiting for the paint to dry, Angela went to Home Depot, and Martin organized the
kitchen appliances.
7. After listening to the Kanye West CD, I have new respect for his music.
8. After the teacher chose groups, John and Sara were selected as partners for a project, yet
Sarah did most of the work.
**On the basis of their function they can be further categorized as:
DECLARATIVE
Declarative sentences (also called assertive sentences) give information. They may state a fact or
an opinion. Declarative sentences end with periods.
Example:
I like riding my bicycle around the park.
My essay is better than yours.
Declarative sentences can be positive (affirmative) or negative.
The sun is shining. (Positive)
It is not raining. (Negative)
IMPERATIVE
Imperative sentences give a command, a request, advice, a suggestion, a warning, or a wish.

They can be followed by a period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark.
Example:
Be quiet. (a command)
Please have a seat. (a request)
Watch out! (a command)
Enjoy yourselves. (a wish)
The simple subject of an imperative sentence is usually the understood you.
39
Turn to page 37.

(You) turn to page 37.
Hint:
If a person's name is included in an imperative sentence, it is a direct address, not the subject.
Wayne, turn to page 37.

Wayne, (you) turn to page 37.
Imperative sentences may be written like a question, but they aren't asking anything.
Will you please mind your manners?

INTERROGATIVE
Interrogative sentences ask a question. Interrogative sentences end with question marks.
In English, interrogative questions often begin with interrogative words

like who, when, where, why, what, and how.
Example:
Why are you late?
What time is it?
Where is the library?
Interrogative sentences without question words are generally formed by moving the helping verb
before the subject.
Example:
Do you have any more cough drops?
A question fragment can be added onto the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. This
fragment is called a tag/tail question.
You have answered all the questions on this test, haven't you? (After a declarative sentence)
Close the window, will you? (After an imperative sentence)
A question fragment can also be used by itself, either before or after a sentence.
What? You lost your wallet?

You are late. Why?
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Hint:
An indirect question is a declarative sentence that tells that information was asked. It is not
asking the question. Indirect questions end with periods.
The driver asked if we knew which way to turn.
We wondered if it was going to rain.
EXCLAMATORY
Exclamatory sentences exclaim, or show great emotion. Exclamatory sentences end with
exclamation marks. Use exclamation marks only when necessary. It's easy to overuse them.
Example:
Wow!
That magic trick was amazing!
Exclamatory sentences can begin with question words.
What wonderful weather we are having today!

How lovely to see you!
Fun fact:
The is called the interrobang. It truly is a type of punctuation mark. It was invented by a
journalist in 1962. Martin K. Speckter combined the? and! Since he didn't like using two end
marks. It didn't catch on. Most teachers don't like two end marks either. Sometimes, though, you
really need both. It's okay in informal writing. Only one exclamation mark at a time is enough in
formal writing.
Read the following sentences and state their kind.
1. Please leave your footwear outside.

2. Will you wait here?
3. Where have you been all this while?
4. We will not tolerate this.
5. I am your friend.
6. My sister lives in Mexico.
7. What did you do then?
8. Do be a bit more careful.
9. Never speak to me like that again.
10. Always remember what I told you.
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Unit 5
Chapter 6- Modals
The modal verbs include can, could, must, may, might, will, would, should. They are used with
other verbs to express ability, obligation, possibility, and so on. Modal verbs are unlike other
verbs. They do not change their form (spelling) and they have no infinitive or participle
(past/present). The modals must and can need substitute verbs to express obligation or ability in
the different tenses. Here are some examples:
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43
44
Unit -5
Chapter 7- PUNCTUATION
Correct punctuation is essential for clear and effective writing. The following list contains some
of the most critical punctuation rules.
COMMAS
Commas are used to separate parts of a sentence. They tell readers to pause between words or
groups of words, and they help clarify the meanings of sentences.
1) Commas are used to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
Example:
Practice will be held before school, in the afternoon, and at night.
2) Commas are used after an introductory dependent clause (a group of words before the
subject of a sentence that do not form a complete sentence).
Example
If your friends enjoy Chinese food, they will love this restaurant.
3) Commas are used to set off introductory words, introductory adverbial, participial, or
infinitive phrases, and longer introductory prepositional phrases.
Example
Incidentally, I was not late this morning. (Word)
Hoping for a bigger fish, Rob spent three more hours fishing. (Phrase)
4) Commas are used between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
Example
My dog had fleas, so we gave him a bath.
5) Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses.

Example
The man, I think, had a funny laugh.
6) Commas set off an appositive (a word or phrase that renames a noun).

Example
Tanya, Debbie's sister, gave a brilliant speech last night.
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END OF PUNCTUATION
1) End of sentence punctuation is used to let the reader know when a thought is finished. A
statement (or declarative sentence) is followed by a period.
Example: Orem is the home of Utah Valley State College.
2) A direct question (or interrogative sentence) is followed by a question mark.

Example: When did Joe buy a red shirt?
3) Do not use a question mark after a declarative sentence that contains an indirect question.
Example: Marie wants to know when Joe bought a red shirt.
4) An exclamatory sentence is followed by an exclamation point.

Example: What a good movie!
NOTE: Use exclamation marks sparingly because they can unnecessarily exaggerate sentences.
Example: Monet was the most influential painter of his time! (Most emphasizes influential
painter; therefore, an exclamation point is not needed.)
SEMICOLONS
1) Semicolons are used to separate clauses or phrases that are related and that receive equal
emphasis. Semicolons join independent clauses in a compound sentence if no coordinating
conjunction is used.
Example: Michael seemed preoccupied; he answered our questions abruptly.
2) Semicolons are used before a conjunctive adverb (transition word) that joins the clauses of
a compound sentence.
Example: The emergency room was crowded; however, Warren was helped immediately.
3) Semicolons help avoid confusion in lists where there are already commas.
Example: We traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Berlin, Germany; and Sofia,
Bulgaria.
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COLONS
Colons follow independent clauses and are used to call attention to the information that
comes after. Colons come after the independent clause and before the word, phrase, sentence,
quotation, or list it is introducing.
Example:
Joe has only one thing on his mind: girls. (Word)
Joe has only one thing on his mind: the girl next door. (Phrase)
Joe has only one thing on his mind: he wants to go out with Linda. (clause)
Joe has several things on his mind: his finals, his job, and Linda. (list) (Never use a colon
after a verb that directly introduces a list.)
HYPHENS
Hyphens are used to form compound words or join word units. They are used to join prefixes,
suffixes, and letters to words.
Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions used as
modifiers.
Example:
Forty-two applicants
Two-thirds majority (two-thirds is an adjective modifying majority)
Three-fourths empty (three-fourths is an adverb modifying empty)
Two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here because
thirds is a noun being modified by two)
Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when it comes before the word it modifies. However,
some compound adjectives are always hyphenated, such as well-balanced. Look up compound
adjectives in the dictionary if you are unsure whether or not to hyphenate them.
Example:
A well-liked author an author who is well liked
A world-renowned composer is a composer who is world renowned. Use a hyphen with the
prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix -elect; and with all prefixes before a proper noun
or proper adjective.
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Example:
All-star ex-mayor pro-Canadian senator-elect Anti-Semitic Non-European self-control self-
image
DASHES
Dashes connect groups of words to other groups of words in order to emphasize a point or show
that the information is unessential. Usually the dash separates words in the middle of a sentence
from the rest of the sentence.
In the middle of a sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a group of words or make them
stand out from the rest of the sentence.
Example:
Linda Simpson's prescription for the economy, lower interest rates, higher employment, and
less government spending, was rejected by the president's administration.
BECOMES: Linda Simpson's prescription for the economylower interest rates, higher employment,
and less government spendingwas rejected by the president's administration.
The dash can also be used to attach material to the end of a sentence when there is a clear break in
the continuity of the sentence or when an explanation is being introduced.
Example:
The president will be unable to win enough votes for another term of officeunless, of
course, he can reduce unemployment and the deficit soon.
Example:
It was a close callthe sudden gust of wind pushed the helicopter to within inches of the
power line.
APOSTROPHES
Apostrophes are used to show possession or to indicate where a letter has been omitted to form a
contraction. To show possession, add an apostrophe and an -s to singular nouns or indefinite
pronouns that end in one or body.
Example:
Susan's wrench, anyone's problem.
Add only an apostrophe for plural possessive nouns ending in -s.
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Example:
my parents' car, the musicians' instruments.
Add an apostrophe and an -s for plural possessive nouns that do not end in -s.
Example:
the men's department, my children's toys.
Add an apostrophe and an -s for singular possessive nouns that end in -s.
Example:
Chris's cookbook, the business's system.
Do not use an apostrophe with possessive personal pronouns including yours, his, hers, its, ours,
their, and whose.
Apostrophes are also used in contractions, two words which have been combined into one, to mark
where the missing letter or letters would be.
Example:
I am= I'm I have = I've who is = who's let us =let's
cannot = can't he is, she is, it is = he's, she's, it is=its
you are = you're they are = they're
Avoid confusing it's with its. It's is a contraction for it is; its is a possessive pronoun.
QUOTATION MARKS
Quotation marks are used to show the beginning and end of a quotation or a title of a short work.
Quotation marks enclose the exact words of a person (direct quotation).
Example:
Megan said, "Kurt has a red hat."
Do not use quotation marks around a paraphrase (using your own words to express the authors
ideas) or a summary of the author's words.
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Example:
Megan said that Kurts hat was red.
Quotation marks set off the titles of magazine articles, poems, reports, and chapters within a book.
(Titles of books, magazines, plays, and other whole publications should be underlined or italicized.)
Example:
"The Talk of the Town" is a regular feature in Time magazine.
QUOTATION MARKS WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION
Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.
Example:
Aida said, Aaron has a blue shirt.
Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.
Example:
He calls me his "teddy bear"; I'm not a bear.
Place question marks or exclamation points inside the quotation marks if they punctuate the
quotation only.
Example:
"Are we too late?" she asked.
Place question marks or exclamation points outside the quotation marks if they punctuate the
entire sentence.
PARENTHESES
Example:
Why did she say, "We are too late"?
Elements inside parentheses are related to the sentence but are nonessential. Parentheses set off
additions or expressions that are not necessary to the sentence. They tend to de-emphasize what
they set off.
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Example:
We visited several European countries (England, France, Spain) on our trip last year.
Parentheses enclose figures within a sentence.
Example:
Grades will be based on (1) participation, (2) in-class writing, and (3) exams.
When the group inside the parentheses forms a complete sentence but is inserted inside a larger
sentence, no period is needed. However, if a question mark or exclamation point is needed, it may
be used.
Example:
The snow (she saw it as she passed the window) was now falling heavily.
When parentheses are used to enclose an independent sentence, the end punctuation belongs
inside the parentheses.
Example:
Mandy told me she saw Amys new car. (I saw Amys car before Mandy.)
She said it was a nice car.
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Unit 6
Chapter 8- PHRASAL VERBS
What are phrasal verbs?
Phrasal verbs are verbs that consist of a verb and a particle (a preposition or adverb) or a verb and
two particles (an adverb and a preposition as in get on with or look forward to). They are identified
by their grammar (more about that in Unit 2), but it is probably best to think of them as individual
vocabulary items, to be learnt in phrases or chunks. They often but not always have a one-word
equivalent. For example, you can come across a new phrasal verb or you can encounter it.
You can pick up a language or you can acquire it. Come across and pick up sound less literary or
formal than encounter or acquire.
Why are phrasal verbs important?
Phrasal verbs are extremely common in English. They are found in a wide variety of contexts. You
may have noticed them in songs, for example the Beatles Ill get by with a little help from my
friends or Roll over Beethoven, Bob Marleys Get up, stand up and red Hot Chili Peppers Knock me
down. You find them in film titles such as The Empire Strikes Back, Spirited Away, Along Came Polly
or Cast Away.
What can I do to help myself master phrasal verbs?
Try to think positively about them! And, now you are at a more advanced level, try not just to
understand them, but also to use them in your own speaking and writing. Keep an eye open for
them whenever you are reading anything in English and make a note of any interesting ones you
find. Write them down in a complete phrase or a sentence to fix in your mind how they are used.
Be aware that one of the special features of phrasal verbs is that some of them have many
different meanings for example, you can pick something up from the floor, you can pick up a
language or bad habits, the weather can pick up, you can pick up a bargain, a radio can pick up a
signal, the economy can pick up, you can pick up a story where you left it, you can pick someone
up in your car. Sometimes the meanings are clearly related, some being more literal and some
more metaphorical.
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PHRASAL VERBS WITH AND WITHOUT OBJECTS
Some phrasal verbs take an object (transitive); others do not take an object (intransitive).
with object (transitive) no object (intransitive)
They are knocking down the old hotel. The path branched off to the river.
The plumber soon sorted out the shower problem. The noise of the train died away.
She tied her hair back so she could work better. In the winter the lake froze over.
Some verbs can be used both with and without an object, but the meaning may change. Use the
context to decide if the verb has a different meaning from the one you are familiar with.
Examples:
Tina and Jo were so clever the teacher moved them up to a higher class. (With object)
Tina and Jo moved up to a higher class. (No object = same meaning)
I can drop you off at the station.(With object = drive you somewhere and leave you there)
I was sitting in the armchair and I dropped off.(No object = fell asleep, different meaning)
Some verbs must have two objects, one after the verb and one after the particle.
I always associate that song with our holiday in Jamaica.

Playing tennis for three hours every evening after school deprived her of her youth.
POSITION OF THE OBJECT
In many cases, the particle may come before or after the object.
Examples:
The teacher marked two students down / marked down two students because they
answered the wrong questions in the exam.
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Very long objects usually come after the particle.
The accident cut off domestic and industrial water and electricity supplies.
When the object is a personal pronoun, the pronoun always comes before the particle.
Noun object Personal pronoun object

I picked my parents up / picked up my parents and Ill pick you up at 5; 30. (Not: Ill pick up
drove them to the airport. you at 5:30)
you at 5.30.)
Some verbs (sometimes called prepositional verbs) must have the object after the particle, even if
it is a pronoun. A good dictionary will tell you if this is so.
Example:
Weve had to contend with a lot of problems lately. (Not: contend a lot of problems with)
[Deal with a difficult or unpleasant situation]
You probably already know some of these verbs (look for, look after, cope with).
THREE-PART VERBS
Some phrasal verbs have three parts, the verb and two particles. The object comes last.
Example:
I will not put up with such bad behavior. [Tolerate]
Other examples include: look forward to, look down on, get on with, catch up on [do something
you did not have time to do earlier], face up to [accept that a difficult or unpleasant situation
exists].
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Verb Meaning Example

ask around ask many people the I asked around but nobody has seen
same question my wallet.
add up to something Equal Your purchases add up to $205.32.

Back someone up Support My wife backed me up over my
decision to quit my job.
blow up Explode The racing car blew up after it

crashed into the fence.
Blow something up add air We have to blow 50 balloons up for

the party.
break down stop functioning Our car broke down at the side of
(vehicle, machine) the highway in the snowstorm.
break down get upset The woman broke down when the
police told her that her son had died.
break in force entry to a building Somebody broke in last night and

stole our stereo.
break into something enter forcibly The firemen had to break into the
room to rescue the children.
break in Interrupt The TV station broke in to report

the news of the president's death.
break up end a relationship My boyfriend and I broke up

before I moved to America.
break up start laughing (informal) The kids just broke up as soon as

the clown started talking.
Bring someone down make unhappy This sad music is bringing me down.
Bring someone up raise a child/Nourish My grandparents brought me up after
my parents died.
Bring something up start talking about a subject My mother walks out of the room
when my father brings up sports.
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call around phone many We called around but we weren't able

different to find the car part we needed.
places/people
Call someone back return a phone call I called the company back but the
offices were closed for the weekend.
Call something off Cancel Jason called the wedding off because
he wasn't in love with his fianc.
call on someone ask for an answer or opinion The professor called on me for question
1.
Call someone up Phone Give me your phone number and I will
call
you up when we are in town.
calm down relax after being angry You are still mad. You need to calm down
before you drive the car.
check in arrive and register at a hotel We will get the hotel keys when we
or airport check in.
check out leave a hotel You have to check out of the hotel
before 11:00 AM.
check out look at (informal) Check out the crazy hair on that guy!
someone/something
cheer up To support somebody with She cheered up when she heard the
applause good news.
Cheer someone up make happier I brought you some flowers to cheer you
up.
chip in Help If everyone chips in we can get the

kitchen painted by noon.
come across something find unexpectedly I came across these old photos when I
was tidying the closet.
come forward volunteer for a task or to give The woman came forward with her
evidence husband's finger prints.
come from somewhere originate in The art of origami comes from Asia.
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count on rely on I am counting on you to make dinner

someone/something while I am out.
Cut something down make something fall to the We had to cut the old tree in our yard
ground down after the storm.
Cut something off remove with something sharp The doctors cut off his leg because it was
severely injured.
Cut something out remove part of something I cut this ad out of the newspaper.
(usually with scissors and
paper)
do away with something Discard It's time to do away with all of these old
tax records.
dress up wear nice clothing It's a fancy restaurant so we have to

dress up.
eat out eat at a restaurant I don't feel like cooking tonight. Let's eat
out.
end up eventually reach/do/decide We ended up renting a movie instead of

going to the theatre.
fall apart break into pieces My new dress fell apart in the washing
machine.
Figure something out understand, find the answer I need to figure out how to fit the piano
and the bookshelf in this room.
Fill something in to write information in blanks Please fill in the form with your name,
(Br. E.) address, and phone number.
Fill something out to write information in blanks The form must be filled out in capital
(N. Amer.) letters.
find out Discover We don't know where he lives. How can

we find out?
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Get something communicate, make I tried to get my point across/over to the

across/over understandable judge but she wouldn't listen.
get along/on like each other I was surprised how well my new
girlfriend and my sister got along/on.
get away with something do without being noticed or Jason always gets away with cheating in
punished his maths tests.
get back Return We got back from our vacation last week.
Get something back receive something you had Liz finally got her Science notes back
before from my room-mate.
get back at someone retaliate, take revenge My sister got back at me for stealing her
shoes. She stole my favorite hat.
get over something overcome a problem The company will have to close if it can't
get over the new regulations.
get together meet (usually for social Let's get together for a BBQ this
reasons) weekend.
get up get out of bed I got up early today to study for my

exam.
get up Stand You should get up and give the elderly

man your seat.
give in reluctantly stop fighting or My boyfriend didn't want to go to the

arguing ballet, but he finally gave in.
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Give something out give to many people (usually They were giving out free perfume
at no cost) samples at the department store.
Give something up quit a habit I am giving up smoking as of January 1st.
give up stop trying My maths homework was too difficult so

I gave up.
go after someone follow someone My brother tried to go after the thief in

his car.
go against someone compete, oppose We are going against the best soccer
team in the city tonight.
go without something suffer lack or deprivation When I was young, we went without
winter boots.
grow apart stop being friends over time My best friend and I grew apart after she
changed schools.
Hand something out to distribute to a group of We will hand out the invitations at the
people door.
Hand something over give (usually unwillingly) The police asked the man to hand over
his wallet and his weapons.
hang in stay positive (N. Amer., Hang in there. I'm sure you'll find a job
informal) very soon.
hang on wait a short time (informal) Hang on while I grab my coat and shoes!
hang out spend time relaxing (informal) Instead of going to the party we are just
going to hang out at my place.
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hang up end a phone call He didn't say goodbye before he hung

up.
hold on wait a short time Please hold on while I transfer you to the
Sales Department.
hold onto hold firmly using your hands Hold onto your hat because it's very
someone/something or arms windy outside.
Keep someone/something stop from entering Try to keep the wet dog out of the living
Out room.
Let someone down fail to support or help, I need you to be on time. Don't let me
disappoint down this time.
Let someone in allow to enter Can you let the cat in before you go to
school?
look after take care of I have to look after my sick grandmother.

someone/something
look for try to find I'm looking for a red dress for the
someone/something wedding.
look forward to something be excited about the future I'm looking forward to the Christmas
break.
look into something Investigate We are going to look into the price of
snowboards today.
look out be careful, vigilant, and take Look out! That car's going to hit you!
notice
look out for be especially vigilant for Don't forget to look out for snakes on the
someone/something hiking trail.
Make something up invent, lie about something Josie made up a story about why we
were late.
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make up forgive each other We were angry last night, but we made
up at breakfast.
pass away Die His uncle passed away last night after a
long illness.
pass out Faint It was so hot in the church that an elderly

lady passed out.
Put something out Extinguish The neighbors put the fire out before the
firemen arrived.
Put something together Assemble I have to put the crib together before the
baby arrives.
run into meet unexpectedly I ran into an old school-friend at the mall.
someone/something
run over drive a vehicle over a person I accidentally ran over your bicycle in the
someone/something or thing driveway.
Set something up arrange, organize Our boss set a meeting up with the
president of the company.
Set someone up trick, trap The police set up the car thief by using a
hidden camera.
stick to something continue doing something, You will lose weight if you stick to the
limit yourself to one particular diet.
thing
Switch something off stop the energy flow, turn off The light's too bright. Could you switch it
off.
Switch something on start the energy flow, turn on We heard the news as soon as we
switched on the car radio.
take after someone resemble a family member I take after my mother. We are both
impatient.
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take off start to fly My plane takes off in five minutes.
Take something off remove something (usually Take off your socks and shoes and come
clothing) in the lake!
Think something over Consider I'll have to think this job offer over
before I make my final decision.
Throw something away dispose of We threw our old furniture away when
we won the lottery.
Turn something down decrease the volume or Please turn the TV down while the
strength (heat, light etc) guests are here.
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Unit 6
Chapter 9- IDIOMS
Idioms are groups of words with a special meaning that is quite different from the meaning of the
individual words. For example, the idiom "to be on the ball" really has nothing to do with a ball or
being on top of one. It means that someone is very industrious, intelligent and organized. For this
reason, we can say that idioms meanings are opaque rather than transparent.
Whats wrong with this sentence?
I have a lot on my plates with school, and I have been working around my watch.
EXPLANATION:
There are many phrases in English which can be very confusing to people trying to learn the
language, especially phrases which we try to understand literally, but actually mean something very
different.
These phrases are known as idiomatic phrases, or idioms.
Example:
I have a lot on my plate tomorrow as I have to finish with an assignment and work in the
evening.
If we try to understand these words literally, it means I have a plate with many items on it,
meaning I have a lot of food. (Is this what we mean???)
The phrase actually means I am busy.
Example:
I am busy tomorrow as I have to finish an assignment and work in the evening.
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Importance of idioms:
There are two main reasons to learn common idioms.
1. When used in speaking, and sometimes writing, they show a high level of vocabulary.
This is because they are natural phrases commonly used by native speakers. Remember, when we
study English, we want to sound as natural as possible, as close to a native speaker as possible.
Therefore, using idioms helps us in this.
2. We can recognize them when listening to others speaking.
It may be very difficult understand native speakers, or expert users of English, when they are
speaking if they use idioms. Often when learners of English read, watch a movie or listen to the
radio, they may misunderstand a lot if idioms are used. A good understanding of common idioms
will enable learners to understand a great deal more of natural speech.
Ways to understand:
As mentioned above, the nature of an idiom is that we cannot understand it if we try to look at the
literal meaning. If we try to define an idiomatic phrase, we will often completely misunderstand the
meaning of what someone is saying. (see the example of a lot on my plate)
This means, we have to follow a simple process for understanding idioms:
Try to guess the meaning from context.
Look at the sentence and try to understand it without the idiom, and then guess some words that
could replace the phrase and make sense.
This is a very important skill and should always be the first thing you do before asking for help or
checking in a dictionary.
What should we do when we find a new idiom?

First, we need to decide if it is useful or not. So what makes a phrase useful? Well, useful
means to have a lot of uses or something that can be used a lot. So if you think you could
use this phrase in many situations, then that means it is useful!
Now that we have decided if a phrase is useful, we need to record it. Everyone studying
English, whether at a high level or low level, should keep a vocabulary journal (a notebook to
record new and useful words and phrases). It is a good idea to have an area to record idioms
64
so that you can find them again easily.
Finally, use and review! Try to use your new phrases in speaking and writing, and go back to
older phrases and use them again.
How do we use idioms?
The most important things to know when learning to use idioms are:
What changes, what doesnt?
Often mistakes are made when using idioms because learners try to change too much.
Example:
I have a lot on my plate today. OR
She works around the clock at weekends.
(This means she works long hours. Probably all day, and maybe at night too.)
In these phrases there are only two parts we can change, the verb and the pronouns:
She has a lot on her plate today. (Correct) I work around the clock at weekends. (Correct)
She has a lot in her bowl today. (Incorrect) I work over the clock at the weekends. (Incorrect)
When can we use this phrase?
One very common mistake is using a phrase in the wrong situation, or trying to use it literally.
Example:
I am very hungry so I will have a lot on my plate. (Incorrect)
(Remember, this phrase means busy, so this is not the correct idiomatic use!)
so
I have a lot on my plates with school, and I have been working around my watch. (Incorrect)
I have a lot on my plate with school, and I have been working around the clock. (Correct)
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English Idioms Commonly Used In Daily Language
Common Idioms Meaning Example
A blessing in disguise seems bad, but is actually Accidently registering for the wrong
good class was actually a blessing in
disguise.
Actions speak louder than actions are more important You say you love me but actions
words than words speak louder than words.
A piece of cake Easy That test was a piece of cake.
Beating around the bush not discussing what is I needed to study, but I kept beating
important/procrastinating around the bush.
Big task on your hand having something important My teacher gave me a new
to finish assignment, so I have a big task on
my hands.
Break a leg wishing someone to do You will do fine on your presentation. Go

well/ good luck break a leg out there.
Cant stand something to dislike something I cant stand having to do homework on a

Sunday.
Check out that give that a look Check out that very cool looking car.
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Close but no cigar close but failed at the end You got a 79% on the test. Almost a B.
close but no cigar.
Don't sweat it Dont worry about it You accidently scratched my car but I
don't care.
Dont sweat it.
Driving me bananas making me feel crazy My very loud neighbors are driving me
bananas.
Easier said than done easy to say, but hard to Changing the world is easier said than
actually do done.
Get out of town I don't believe you You got an A in your Finance class?
Get out of town!
Get over it forget about the past He broke up with his girlfriend but he
needs to get over it.
Gone off track forgot about your future My friend really got off track because
goal he failed three classes this semester.
Hands down for certain the right answer America is hands down the best place
to study abroad.
Hang on a second wait for a moment Hang on a secondI am waiting for my

laundry to finish.
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Hang out spend time with a friend Joe and I hang out after class every week.
Have stumbled upon to accidentally discover I stumbled upon a new restaurant while
something walking around downtown.
Hold your horses wait/calm down Hold your horses. I am still eating my
lunch.
How is it going? How are you? How is it going Bobby?
I made a key decision make an important decision I made a key decision to finish college.
Inside scoop the details Hey give me the inside scoop on how
you met John.
In the bag will definitely happen My baseball team will win the game. It
is in the bag.
I was knocked on my I was surprised I was knocked on my heels when I

heels realized I got the job.
Ill toss it around to casually suggest an idea I am tossing around the idea of having a
party
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Unit 6
Chapter 10- CONFUSING WORDS
INTRODUCTION
Confusing words questions have been designed to check primarily for mental alertness
differentiating between two similar words.
English has a lot of commonly confused words. They look alike, sound alike or, worst of all, look
and sound alike but have completely different meanings. Other words look and sound different
but are hard to determine which the correct one in a given context is.
To excel in this area, having a good vocabulary alone is not sufficient. A good vocabulary can be
useful when used to trigger a word already in your vocabulary bank. But simply plucking out a
near- synonym in trying to the guess the meaning of a word that seems similar to a word that
you already know, can result in some disastrous situation because the word may not fit the
context. And thus comes the need of understanding the usage of words and having mental
alertness to identify subtle differences between/ among them.
CATEGORIES OF CONFUSING WORDS

1. contractions vs. possessions
Example: its Vs. its
2. words with multiple meanings
Example: ail, capital, seen, die
3. wrong usage of words with same meaning
Example: Fewer (Used with countable nouns) and Lesser (Used with uncountable nouns)
IRREGULAR WORDS
1. Spelling different Words with same letters but different spellings
Example - sale and seal
2. Pronunciation different Words with same letters but different pronunciations
Example Wind (Air), Wind (Turn)

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3. Mistaken to be one another Words that are often based on the usage
Example: Affect, Effect
Accept vs. Except
Accept (verb) - to receive
I accepted all my birthday gifts with gratitude.
Except (conjunction) - apart from; otherwise than; were it not true
When Susan travels, she packs everything except the kitchen sink.
Affect vs. Effect
Affect (verb) - to have an effect on; influence; produce a change in; to stir the emotions
The dog's death affected his owners.
Effect (noun) - anything brought about by a cause or agent; result
The new speed limit law had little effect on the speed of the motorists.
All Intensive Purposes vs. All Intents and Purposes
"All intensive purpose" is an incorrect use of the phrase "all intents and purposes."
"All intents and purposes" is a phrase that means "for all practical purposes" or "under most
usual situations."
For all intents and purpose, she planned to buy the refrigerator but still wanted to check the
reviews.
A Lot vs. Allot
A lot (noun phrase) -many
A lot of people came to the party.
*"A lot" is always two separate words. "Alot" is not a real word.
Allot (verb) - to distribute, give or assign
Fifteen minutes were allotted to each of the speakers at the conference.
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Allusion vs. Illusion
Allusion (noun) - an indirect reference
The Austin Powers movies often make allusions to the James Bond films.
Illusion (noun) - a false idea or conception; belief or opinion not in accord with the facts; an
unreal, deceptive, or misleading appearance or image
The magician created the illusion that he was levitating.
Awhile vs. A While
Awhile (adverb) - for a while; for a short time
The guests planned to stay awhile.
A while (noun) - for a short time; when while is used as the object of the preposition (for a while)
then the "a" is separated from the "while"
The guests planned to stay for a while.
Bad vs. Badly
Bad (adjective) - not good
Your feet smell bad.
Badly (adverb) - not well; in a bad manner; harmfully; incorrectly; wickedly; unpleasantly
Charlotte plays tennis very badly.
The people involved in the accident were badly hurt.
Borrow vs. Lend
Borrow (verb) - to take or accept something for a short time with the intention of returning it to
its rightful owner
May I borrow a pencil, please?
Lend (verb) - to give something for a short time with the intention of getting it back
Would you please lend me a pencil?
71
Breath vs. Breathe
Breath (noun) - air taken into the lungs and then let out
Take a deep breath.
Breathe (verb) - to inhale and exhale
Just calm down and breathe.
Butt Naked vs. Buck Naked
Butt Naked is a phrase that means to be without clothes.
The baby tore off his diaper and ran around the house butt naked.
Buck Naked is a phrase that also means to be naked and without clothing.
The baby tore off his diaper and ran around the house buck naked
Cache vs. Cash
Cache (noun) - a safe place to store supplies; anything stored or hidden in such a place
The hikers found a cache with some cash and jewels.
Cash (noun) - money, coins, bills; currency
ATM machines dispense cash.
Chomp at the Bit vs. Champ at the Bit
Chomp at the bit - an overused and incorrect form of "champing at the bit"
Champ at the bit (idiom) - ready or anxious; eager to be going or moving along.
The kids were champing at the bit to see the newest Harry Potter movie.
Complement vs. Compliment
Complement (noun) - that which completes or brings to perfection; (verb) - to make complete
Red wine is a nice complement to a steak dinner.
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Compliment (noun) - something said in admiration, praise, or flattery; (verb) - to pay a

compliment to; congratulate
She gave me a nice compliment when she said I looked thin.
Comprise vs. Compose
Comprise (verb) - to include; to contain; to consist of; to be composed of
The state of North Carolina comprises 100 counties.
Compose (verb) - to form in combination; make up; constitute
One hundred counties compose the state of North Carolina.
Desert vs. Dessert
Desert (verb) - to forsake or abandon; to leave without permission; to fail when needed
Soldiers should not desert their posts.
Desert (noun) - dry, barren, sandy region
The largest desert in the world is the Sahara.
Dessert (noun) - a sweet course served at the end of a meal
Fruit makes a healthy dessert after lunch or dinner.
Done vs. Did
Done (adjective) - completed; sufficiently cooked; socially acceptable
Done (verb) - the past participle of do
After an hour, the roast was done.
Did (verb) - past tense of do
The children did not want to leave the playground.
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Elicit vs. Illicit
Elicit (verb) - to draw forth; evoke
The teacher elicited answers from the students.
Illicit (adjective) - unlawful; illegal
The teacher discovered illicit drugs in a students desk.
Fair to Midland vs. Fair to Middling
Fair to midland - an incorrect use of the phrase "fair to middling"
Fair to middling (phrase) - something that is moderate to average in quality
The temperature was fair to middling today.
Had Bought vs. Had Boughten
Had Bought (verb) - the past perfect tense of the verb buy
The teacher had bought Christmas presents for all of students early in the year.
Had Boughten - incorrect usage of the past perfect tense
Hone vs. Home
Hone (verb) - to sharpen; to yearn or long for; to grumble or moan
Practicing the piano daily is a good way to hone your skills.
Home (noun) - dwelling; place where a person lives
After the long drive, we were all ready to be home and asleep.
Idiosyncrasy vs. Idiosyncracy
Idiosyncrasy (noun) - any personal peculiarity or mannerism; individual reaction to food or drug.
Twins have idiosyncrasies, which often help to distinguish one from the other.
Idiosyncracy is a misspelling of idiosyncrasy.
74
Imitated vs. Intimated
Imitated (verb) - past tense of the verb imitate, which means to seek to follow the example of;
impersonate; mimic
The toddler imitated the dog by crawling on hands and knees and barking.
Intimated (verb) - to make known indirectly; to hint or imply
The pirate intimated that he knew where the treasure was buried.
In a Sense vs. In Essence
In a sense (idiom) - in a way; in one way of looking at it
In a sense, computers have been a boon to society.
In essence (idiom) - by nature; essentially
The cat is, in essence, quiet and timid.
In One Foul Swoop vs. In One Fell Swoop
In one foul swoop - an incorrect use of the phrase "in one fell swoop"
In one fell swoop - a phrase meaning "all at once"
In one fell swoop, the toy was demolished by the child.
Its vs. Its
Its (possessive pronoun) - of, belonging to, made by, or done by it
The dog will only eat its food when I am also eating.
Its (contraction) of it + is
Its a very strange dog.
I Could Of vs. I Could Have
I could of - an incorrect use of the verb phrase could have; when written as a contraction
"could've" sounds like "could of."
I could have - is the past perfect tense of the verb could

75
I could have gone to the play, but I had to study that night
I Should of vs. I Should Have
I should of - an incorrect use of the verb phrase should have; when written as a contraction
"should've" sounds like "should of."
I should have - is the past perfect tense of the verb should
I should have gone to the play instead of study because I failed my test anyway.
I Would Of vs. I Would Have
I would of - an incorrect use of the verb phrase would have; when written as a contraction
"would've" sounds like "would of."
I would have - is the past perfect tense of the verb would
I would have gone to the play except my car wouldn't start.
Lead vs. Led
Lead (noun) - a heavy, soft, malleable, bluish-gray metallic chemical element used in batteries
and in numerous alloys and compounds
I think it was Mrs. White in the billiard room with the lead pipe.
Led (verb) - past tense and past participle of the verb "to lead"
The two coaches have each led their teams to numerous championships.
Lose vs. Loose
Lose (verb) - to become unable to find; to mislay; to fail to win or gain
Did you lose your glasses again?
How many games did your team lose last season?
Loose (adjective) - not tight; giving enough room
Ive lost twenty pounds, and now these jeans are really loose.
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More/Most Importantly vs. More/Most Important
More/most importantly - a phrase used often in writing to show emphasis; however, many
grammarians insist that this is not correct usage. The adverbial ending of -ly is not needed.
More/most important - this phrase should be used instead
The most important part of story is the ending.
Passed vs. Past
Passed (verb) - past tense of the verb "to pass"
I think we passed the store. Lets turn around and go back.
Past (adjective) - of a former time; bygone; (noun) - the time that has gone by; days, months, or
years gone by
In the past, Ive gotten lost a lot, but this time I know where we are.
Precede vs. Proceed
Precede (verb) - to be, come, or go before in time, place, order, rank, or importance
The election of a new president precedes his inauguration.
Proceed (verb) - to advance or go on, especially after stopping
After your first assignment has been completed and approved, you may proceed to the
second one.
Principal vs. Principle
Principal (noun) - a governing or presiding officer, specifically of a school; (adjective) - first in

rank, authority, importance, degree, etc.
The students parents had to have a meeting with the principal.
Principle (noun) - a fundamental truth, law, doctrine, or motivating force, upon which others
are based
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The students parents thought that they had instilled stronger moral principles in their son.
Seen vs. Saw
Seen (verb) - past participle of the verb see; must be used with the verbs has, have, or had
I have seen the movie three times.
*Note: I seen the movie three times is not correct though it is commonly used in spoken
language.
Saw (verb) - past tense of the verb see
I saw the movie yesterday.
Sell vs. Sale
Sell (verb) - to give up, deliver or exchange for money
People who move often sell unwanted items instead of packing them.
Sale (noun) - the act of selling; the work, department, etc. of selling
After Christmas sales always bring in the bargain shoppers.
Site vs. Sight
Sight (noun) - something seen, a view, field of vision
She was a sight for sore eyes.
Site (noun) - a piece of land considered for a specific purpose
The corner lot was a perfect site for the new shopping center.
Spitting Image vs. Spirit and Image
"Spitting image" is a phrase that means exactly like. The first known use in writing of this
phrase was in 1901.
Karen is the spitting image of her mother.
Stationary vs. Stationery
Stationary (adjective) - not moving or not movable; fixed or still

78
I rode the stationary bike at the gym for an hour.
Stationery (noun) - writing materials; specifically, paper and envelopes used for letters
My grandmother has given me a lot of stationery over the years. I think she wants me to
use it to write her.
Taut vs Taunt
Taut (adjective) - tightly stretched; showing strain; tidy or well-disciplined
The taut rope held the luggage to the roof.
Taunt (verb) - to reproach in scornful or sarcastic language; to drive or provoke
The home team taunted the visitors with cheers every time the visiting team made an error.
Than vs. Then
Than (conjunction) - used to introduce the second element in a comparison
My right foot is bigger than my left foot.
Then (adverb) - at that time; next in order; (adjective) - of that time; (noun) - that time
Take off all your clothes first. Then get in the shower.
Emily drove up to New York with her then boyfriend, Nick.
Let's wait until we're hungry; we can decide what we want to eat then.
Their vs. There vs. Theyre
Their (adjective) - of, belonging to, made by, or done by them
They were proud of their work.
There (noun) - that place or point
Just put it over there.
Theyre (contraction) of they + are
Theyre going out to dinner tonight.
79
To vs. Too vs. Two
To (preposition) - in the direction of and reaching; as far as; to the extent of
Im going to Baltimore.
Too (adverb) - in addition; as well; besides; also; more than enough; superfluously; overly; to a
regrettable extent; extremely
Im going to Baltimore, too.
I'm too busy. I can't go to Baltimore.
Two (adjective) the number 2
I have two jobs.
Your vs. You're
Your (adjective) - belonging to you
Is this your dog?
You're (contraction) - you are
You're a great mother!
Who vs. Whom
Who (subject pronoun) - what or which person or persons; the person or persons that, or a
person that (used to introduce a relative clause)
Who is going to the party with you?
Whom (object pronoun) - what or which person or persons; the person or persons that, or a
person that (used to introduce a relative clause)
With whom are you going to the party?
80

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SEMESTER - 1

DEPARTMENT OF VERBAL ABILITY

DEPARTMENT OF VERBAL ABILITY

3. Verb Name, Place, Animal, Thing, Emotion

Let us now look into these:

There are different types of pronouns:

Example: I consider myself to be a great student.

Example: That is my car.

Descriptive These adjectives describe nouns that refer Dangerous chemicals.

Possessive A possessive adjective expresses possession This must be your cap.

Compound adjectives Compound adjectives are used to modify A heart-breaking news.

Present is/ am/ are do/ does Has

Past was/ were did Had

Past Participle been done Had

3. Irregular verbs with similar present and past participle forms

3. Correlative conjunctions are paired conjunctions. The correlative conjunctions connect

Example: You can buy either this chick or that duckling.

1. When we mention something for the first time.

2. Before a word which begins with a consonant.

3. Before a word with a long sound of u (consonant sound).

5. The indefinite article a also means one.

6. Sometimes, it is better to use a instead of one.

7. We can use a before a proper noun in some special cases.

1. Before a noun which begins with a vowel sound

2. Before a singular noun (person or thing) to mean only one in quantity

3. Before a noun that is representative of a group, species, etc.

4. Before a noun that begins with a silent h

5. Before abbreviations, some of which begin with a consonant

Flying is far safer than driving. (Uncountable noun)

Cars are still expensive for lower-income people. (Countable noun)

Correct: He travels to work by train.

Incorrect: He travels to work by a/the train.

Correct: She loves taking photos of caterpillars.

Incorrect: She loves taking photos of the caterpillars

2. Before abstract nouns used in a general sense

3. Before proper nouns.

5. Before the name of cities, states, countries, islands, or mountains

He watched a movie. The movie was about the death of a ghost.

1. When there is only one such person, place or thing

2. Before names of famous buildings, etc:

5. Before certain organizations, political parties, and countries

6. Before nouns such as places which we know of

7. Before abbreviations and initials of countries

For vowel sound we pronounce it as thee.

For consonant sound we pronounce it as thuh.

2. To refer to a person or thing when there is only one.

3. Before superlatives, words such as first, only, etc.

4. Before adjectives so that the adjectives become nouns.

5. Before a singular noun that is representative of a group of similar people or things.

6. Before proper nouns.

We use the determiners a/an:

1. Before an uncountable noun.

4. Before a proper noun such as a persons name.

Nouns need not follow these determiners if the meaning is understood.

The determiners can also come before one.

Usage of Few and a few:

Usage of Little and a little

She has had the chickenpox since Tuesday.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS:

ACTIONS THAT STARTED IN THE PAST AND CONTINUE IN THE PRESENT

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Key words: Verb, past participle, tense, preposition

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS