ch3 8

Chapter 3: Relational Model Example of a Relation
Structure of Relational Databases

Relational Algebra
Tuple Relational Calculus
Domain Relational Calculus
Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
Modification of the Database
Views
Database System Concepts 3.1 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 3.2 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Basic Structure Attribute Types

Formally, given sets D1, D2, . Dn a relation r is a subset of Each attribute of a relation has a name
D1 x D2 x x Dn The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain
Thus a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, , an) where of the attribute
each ai Di
Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic, that is,
Example: if indivisible
customer-name = {Jones, Smith, Curry, Lindsay} E.g. multivalued attribute values are not atomic
customer-street = {Main, North, Park}
E.g. composite attribute values are not atomic
customer-city = {Harrison, Rye, Pittsfield}
Then r = { (Jones, Main, Harrison), The special value null is a member of every domain
(Smith, North, Rye), The null value causes complications in the definition of many
(Curry, North, Rye), operations
(Lindsay, Park, Pittsfield)} we shall ignore the effect of null values in our main presentation
is a relation over customer-name x customer-street x customer-city and consider their effect later
Relation Schema Relation Instance

The current values (relation instance) of a relation are
A1, A2, , An are attributes
specified by a table
R = (A1, A2, , An ) is a relation schema
An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table
E.g. Customer-schema =
(customer-name, customer-street, customer-city)
r(R) is a relation on the relation schema R attributes
E.g. customer (Customer-schema) (or columns)
customer-name customer-street customer-city
Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye tuples
Curry North Rye (or rows)
Lindsay Park Pittsfield
customer
Relations are Unordered Database

Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order) A database consists of multiple relations
E.g. account relation with unordered tuples Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts, with each
relation storing one part of the information
E.g.: account : stores information about accounts

depositor : stores information about which customer
owns which account
customer : stores information about customers
Storing all information as a single relation such as
bank(account-number, balance, customer-name, ..)
results in
repetition of information (e.g. two customers own an account)
the need for null values (e.g. represent a customer without an
account)
Normalization theory (Chapter 7) deals with how to design
relational schemas
The customer Relation The depositor Relation
E-R Diagram for the Banking Enterprise Keys

Let K R
K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a
unique tuple of each possible relation r(R)
by possible r we mean a relation r that could exist in the enterprise
we are modeling.
Example: {customer-name, customer-street} and
{customer-name}
are both superkeys of Customer, if no two customers can possibly
have the same name.
K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {customer-name} is a candidate key for Customer,
since it is a superkey (assuming no two customers can possibly
have the same name), and no subset of it is a superkey.
Schema Diagram for the Banking Enterprise

Determining Keys from E-
E-R Sets
Strong entity set. The primary key of the entity set becomes
the primary key of the relation.
Weak entity set. The primary key of the relation consists of the
union of the primary key of the strong entity set and the
discriminator of the weak entity set.
Relationship set. The union of the primary keys of the related
entity sets becomes a super key of the relation.
For binary many-to-one relationship sets, the primary key of the
many entity set becomes the relations primary key.
For one-to-one relationship sets, the relations primary key can be
that of either entity set.
For many-to-many relationship sets, the union of the primary keys
becomes the relations primary key
Query Languages Relational Algebra

Language in which user requests information from the database. Procedural language
Categories of languages Six basic operators
procedural select
non-procedural project
Pure languages: union
Relational Algebra set difference
Tuple Relational Calculus Cartesian product
Domain Relational Calculus rename
Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages that The operators take two or more relations as inputs and give a
people use. new relation as a result.
Select Operation Example Select Operation
Notation: p(r)
Relation r A B C D
p is called the selection predicate
1 7 Defined as:
5 7 p(r) = {t | t r and p(t)}
12 3 Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting
of terms connected by : (and), (or), (not)
23 10
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, , >, . <.
A=B ^ D > 5 (r)
A B C D Example of selection:
branch-name=Perryridge(account)
1 7
23 10
Project Operation Example Project Operation

Notation:
Relation r: A B C A1, A2, , Ak (r)

where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.
10 1
The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by
20 1
erasing the columns that are not listed
30 1
Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
40 2
E.g. To eliminate the branch-name attribute of account
A,C (r) A C A C account-number, balance (account)
1 1
1 = 1
1 2
2
Union Operation Example Union Operation

Notation: r s
Relations r, s: A B A B
Defined as:
1 2 r s = {t | t r or t s}
2 3
1 s For r s to be valid.
r 1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (e.g., 2nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
r s: A B column of s)
1 E.g. to find all customers with either an account or a loan

customer-name (depositor) customer-name (borrower)
2
1
3
Set Difference Operation Example Set Difference Operation

Notation r s
Relations r, s: A B A B
Defined as:
1 2 r s = {t | t r and t s}
2 3 Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
1 r and s must have the same arity
s
r attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
r s: A B
1
1
Cartesian-
Cartesian-Product Operation-
Operation-Example Cartesian-
Cartesian-Product Operation
A B C D E
Notation r x s
Relations r, s:
Defined as:
1 10 a
10 a r x s = {t q | t r and q s}
2
20 b Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That is,
r 10 b R S = ).
s
If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming must
r x s:
be used.
A B C D E
1 10 a
1 10 a
1 20 b
1 10 b
2 10 a
2 10 a
2 20 b
2 10 b
Composition of Operations Rename Operation

Can build expressions using multiple operations Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of
Example: A=C(r x s) relational-algebra expressions.
rxs Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.

A B C D E
Example:
1 10 a
1 10 a x (E)
1 20 b
returns the expression E under the name X
1 10 b
2 10 a If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
2 10 a
2 20 b x (A1, A2, , An) (E)
2 10 b returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the
A=C(r x s) attributes renamed to A1, A2, ., An.
A B C D E
1 10 a
2 20 a
2 20 b
Banking Example Example Queries
branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets) Find all loans of over $1200
customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-only) amount > 1200 (loan)

account (account-number, branch-name, balance)
loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount) Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than
$1200
depositor (customer-name, account-number)
loan-number (amount > 1200 (loan))
borrower (customer-name, loan-number)
Example Queries Example Queries

Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge
Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or branch.
both, from the bank
customer-name (branch-name=Perryridge
customer-name (borrower) customer-name (depositor)
(borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))
Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
account at bank. Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any branch of
the bank.
customer-name (borrower) customer-name (depositor)
customer-name (branch-name = Perryridge
(borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))

customer-name(depositor)
Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge Find the largest account balance
branch.
Rename account relation as d
Query 1 The query is:
customer-name(branch-name = Perryridge (
borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan))) balance(account) - account.balance
(account.balance < d.balance (account x d (account)))
Query 2
customer-name(loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number(
(branch-name = Perryridge(loan)) x borrower))
Formal Definition Additional Operations

A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one
of the following: We define additional operations that do not add any power to the
A relation in the database relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.
A constant relation
Set intersection
Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions; the following are
all relational-algebra expressions: Natural join
E1 E2 Division
E1 - E2 Assignment
E1 x E2
p (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1
s(E1), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1
x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1
Set-
Set-Intersection Operation Set-
Set-Intersection Operation - Example
Notation: r s Relation r, s: A B A B
Defined as: 1 2
r s ={ t | t r and t s } 2 3
1
Assume:
r, s have the same arity r s
attributes of r and s are compatible rs A B
Note: r s = r - (r - s)
2
Natural-
Natural-Join Operation Natural Join Operation Example
Notation: r s
Relations r, s:
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, r s is a relation on schema R S obtained as follows: A B C D B D E
Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
1 a 1 a
If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R S, add 2 a 3 a
a tuple t to the result, where 4 b 1 a
1 a 2 b
t has the same value as tr on r
2 b 3 b
t has the same value as ts on s r s
Example:
r s
R = (A, B, C, D) A B C D E
S = (E, B, D) 1 a
Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E) 1 a
1 a
r s is defined as:
1 a
r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (r.B = s.B r.D = s.D (r x s)) 2 b
Division Operation Division Operation Example
rs Relations r, s: A B
B
Suited to queries that include the phrase for all. 1 1
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively 2
where 3 2
1 s
R = (A1, , Am, B1, , Bn) 1
S = (B1, , Bn) 1
The result of r s is a relation on schema 3
4
R S = (A1, , Am)
6
1
r s = { t | t R-S(r) u s ( tu r ) } 2
r s: A r
Another Division Example Division Operation (Cont.)
Relations r, s:
A B C D E D E Property
Let q r s
a a 1 a 1
a a 1 b 1 Then q is the largest relation satisfying q x s r
a b 1 s Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation
a a 1 Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S R
a b 3
a a 1
a b 1 r s = R-S (r) R-S ( (R-S (r) x s) R-S,S(r))
a b 1
r To see why
R-S,S(r) simply reorders attributes of r
r s: A B C
R-S(R-S (r) x s) R-S,S(r)) gives those tuples t in
a
a R-S (r) such that for some tuple u s, tu r.
Assignment Operation Example Queries

The assignment operation () provides a convenient way to Find all customers who have an account from at least the
express complex queries.
Downtown and the Uptown branches.
Write query as a sequential program consisting of
a series of assignments Query 1
followed by an expression whose value is displayed as a result of
the query. CN(BN=Downtown(depositor account))
Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation variable.
CN(BN=Uptown(depositor account))
Example: Write r s as
temp1 R-S (r) where CN denotes customer-name and BN denotes
temp2 R-S ((temp1 x s) R-S,S (r)) branch-name.
result = temp1 temp2
Query 2
The result to the right of the is assigned to the relation variable on
the left of the .
customer-name, branch-name (depositor account)
temp(branch-name) ({(Downtown), (Uptown)})
May use variable in subsequent expressions.
Example Queries Extended Relational-

Relational-Algebra-
Algebra-Operations
Find all customers who have an account at all branches located

in Brooklyn city.
Generalized Projection
customer-name, branch-name (depositor account) Outer Join
branch-name (branch-city = Brooklyn (branch)) Aggregate Functions
Generalized Projection Aggregate Functions and Operations
Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a
to be used in the projection list. single value as a result.
avg: average value
F1, F2, , Fn(E) min: minimum value
E is any relational-algebra expression max: maximum value
Each of F1, F2, , Fn are are arithmetic expressions involving sum: sum of values
constants and attributes in the schema of E. count: number of values
Given relation credit-info(customer-name, limit, credit-balance), Aggregate operation in relational algebra

find how much more each person can spend:
G1, G2, , Gn g F1( A1), F2( A2),, Fn( An) (E)
customer-name, limit credit-balance (credit-info) E is any relational-algebra expression
G1, G2 , Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
Each Fi is an aggregate function
Each Ai is an attribute name
Aggregate Operation Example Aggregate Operation Example

Relation r:
A B C
Relation account grouped by branch-name:
7
branch-name account-number balance
7
3 Perryridge A-102 400
Perryridge A-201 900
10 Brighton A-217 750
Brighton A-215 750
Redwood A-222 700
sum-C g sum(balance) (account)

g sum(c) (r) branch-name
27
branch-name balance
Perryridge 1300
Brighton 1500
Redwood 700
Aggregate Functions (Cont.) Outer Join

Result of aggregation does not have a name An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
Can use rename operation to give it a name Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that
For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate does not match tuples in the other relation to the result of the
operation join.
Uses null values:
branch-name g sum(balance) as sum-balance (account)
null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist
All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by
definition.
Will study precise meaning of comparisons with nulls later
Outer Join Example Outer Join Example
Inner Join
Relation loan
loan Borrower
loan-number branch-name amount
loan-number branch-name amount customer-name
L-170 Downtown 3000
L-230 Redwood 4000 L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-260 Perryridge 1700 L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
Left Outer Join

Relation borrower
loan Borrower
customer-name loan-number
Jones L-170
Smith L-230 L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
Hayes L-155 L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null
Outer Join Example Null Values
Right Outer Join It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for
loan borrower some of their attributes
null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith Aggregate functions simply ignore null values
L-155 null null Hayes Is an arbitrary decision. Could have returned null as result instead.
Full Outer Join We follow the semantics of SQL in its handling of null values
loan borrower For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any
loan-number branch-name amount customer-name other value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones Alternative: assume each null is different from each other
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith Both are arbitrary decisions, so we simply follow SQL
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null
L-155 null null Hayes
Null Values Modification of the Database

Comparisons with null values return the special truth value The content of the database may be modified using the following
unknown operations:
If false was used instead of unknown, then not (A < 5) Deletion
would not be equivalent to A >= 5
Insertion
Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
Updating
OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown All these operations are expressed using the assignment
(unknown or unknown) = unknown operator.
AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
In SQL P is unknown evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates
to unknown
Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to
unknown
Deletion Deletion Examples

A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except instead
Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.
of displaying tuples to the user, the selected tuples are removed
from the database. account account branch-name = Perryridge (account)
Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only
particular attributes Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50
A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
loan loan amount 0 and amount 50 (loan)
rrE
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query. Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.
r1 branch-city = Needham (account branch)

r2 branch-name, account-number, balance (r1)
r3 customer-name, account-number (r2 depositor)
account account r2
depositor depositor r3
Insertion Insertion Examples

To insert data into a relation, we either: Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has
specify a tuple to be inserted $1200 in account A-973 at the Perryridge branch.
write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted
account account {(Perryridge, A-973, 1200)}
in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:
depositor depositor {(Smith, A-973)}
r r E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression.
Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge
The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a
branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
constant relation containing one tuple.
as the account number for the new savings account.
r1 (branch-name = Perryridge (borrower loan))
account account branch-name, account-number,200 (r1)
depositor depositor customer-name, loan-number(r1)
Updating Update Examples
A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without charging all Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent.
values in the tuple account AN, BN, BAL * 1.05 (account)
Use the generalized projection operator to do this task
where AN, BN and BAL stand for account-number, branch-name
r F1, F2, , FI, (r)
and balance, respectively.
Each Fi is either
the ith attribute of r, if the ith attribute is not updated, or, Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent interest
and pay all others 5 percent
if the attribute is to be updated Fi is an expression, involving only
constants and the attributes of r, which gives the new value for the
attribute account AN, BN, BAL * 1.06 ( BAL > 10000 (account))
AN, BN, BAL * 1.05 (BAL 10000 (account))
Views View Definition

In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see the entire A view is defined using the create view statement which has the
logical model (i.e., all the actual relations stored in the database.) form
Consider a person who needs to know a customers loan number
create view v as <query expression
but has no need to see the loan amount. This person should see
a relation described, in the relational algebra, by where <query expression> is any legal relational algebra query
customer-name, loan-number (borrower loan) expression. The view name is represented by v.
Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to refer to
visible to a user as a virtual relation is called a view. the virtual relation that the view generates.
View definition is not the same as creating a new relation by
evaluating the query expression
Rather, a view definition causes the saving of an expression; the
expression is substituted into queries using the view.
View Examples Updates Through View

Consider the view (named all-customer) consisting of branches Database modifications expressed as views must be translated
and their customers. to modifications of the actual relations in the database.
create view all-customer as Consider the person who needs to see all loan data in the loan
relation except amount. The view given to the person, branch-
branch-name, customer-name (depositor account) loan, is defined as:
branch-name, customer-name (borrower loan) create view branch-loan as
branch-name, loan-number (loan)
We can find all customers of the Perryridge branch by writing: Since we allow a view name to appear wherever a relation name
is allowed, the person may write:
branch-name
(branch-name = Perryridge (all-customer))
branch-loan branch-loan {(Perryridge, L-37)}
Updates Through Views (Cont.) Views Defined Using Other Views

The previous insertion must be represented by an insertion into the One view may be used in the expression defining another view
actual relation loan from which the view branch-loan is constructed. A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation v2
An insertion into loan requires a value for amount. The insertion if v2 is used in the expression defining v1
can be dealt with by either. A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either v1
rejecting the insertion and returning an error message to the user. depends directly to v2 or there is a path of dependencies from
inserting a tuple (L-37, Perryridge, null) into the loan relation v1 to v2
Some updates through views are impossible to translate into A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself.
database relation updates
create view v as branch-name = Perryridge (account))
v v (L-99, Downtown, 23)
Others cannot be translated uniquely
all-customer all-customer {(Perryridge, John)}
Have to choose loan or account, and
create a new loan/account number!
View Expansion Tuple Relational Calculus
A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of other A nonprocedural query language, where each query is of the form
views. {t | P (t) }
Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself contain It is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t
uses of view relations.
t is a tuple variable, t[A] denotes the value of tuple t on attribute A
View expansion of an expression repeats the following
replacement step: t r denotes that tuple t is in relation r
repeat P is a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus
Find any view relation vi in e1
Replace the view relation vi by the expression defining vi
until no more view relations are present in e1
As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will
terminate
Predicate Calculus Formula Banking Example

1. Set of attributes and constants branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
2. Set of comparison operators: (e.g., <, , =, , >, ) customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-city)
3. Set of connectives: and (), or (v) not () account (account-number, branch-name, balance)
4. Implication ( ): x y, if x if true, then y is true loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)
x y x v y depositor (customer-name, account-number)
5. Set of quantifiers: borrower (customer-name, loan-number)
t r (Q(t)) there exists a tuple in t in relation r
such that predicate Q(t) is true
t r (Q(t)) Q is true for all tuples t in relation r

Find the loan-number, branch-name, and amount for loans of Find the names of all customers having a loan, an account, or
over $1200 both at the bank
{t | t loan t [amount] > 1200} {t | s borrower( t[customer-name] = s[customer-name])
u depositor( t[customer-name] = u[customer-name])
Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than $1200
Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account
{t | s loan (t[loan-number] = s[loan-number] s [amount] > 1200)}
at the bank
{t | s borrower( t[customer-name] = s[customer-name])

Notice that a relation on schema [loan-number] is implicitly defined u depositor( t[customer-name] = u[customer-name])
by the query

Find the names of all customers having a loan at the Perryridge Find the names of all customers having a loan from the
branch Perryridge branch, and the cities they live in
{t | s borrower(t[customer-name] = s[customer-name] {t | s loan(s[branch-name] = Perryridge

u loan(u[branch-name] = Perryridge u borrower (u[loan-number] = s[loan-number]
u[loan-number] = s[loan-number]))} t [customer-name] = u[customer-name])
v customer (u[customer-name] = v[customer-name]
Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the t[customer-city] = v[customer-city])))}
Perryridge branch, but no account at any branch of the bank
{t | s borrower( t[customer-name] = s[customer-name]

u loan(u[branch-name] = Perryridge
u[loan-number] = s[loan-number]))
not v depositor (v[customer-name] =
t[customer-name]) }
Example Queries Safety of Expressions
Find the names of all customers who have an account at all It is possible to write tuple calculus expressions that generate
branches located in Brooklyn: infinite relations.
For example, {t | t r} results in an infinite relation if the
{t | c customer (t[customer.name] = c[customer-name]) domain of any attribute of relation r is infinite
s branch(s[branch-city] = Brooklyn To guard against the problem, we restrict the set of allowable
u account ( s[branch-name] = u[branch-name] expressions to safe expressions.
s depositor ( t[customer-name] = s[customer-name]
An expression {t | P(t)} in the tuple relational calculus is safe if
s[account-number] = u[account-number] )) )}
every component of t appears in one of the relations, tuples, or
constants that appear in P
NOTE: this is more than just a syntax condition.
E.g. { t | t[A]=5 true } is not safe --- it defines an infinite set with
attribute values that do not appear in any relation or tuples or
constants in P.
Domain Relational Calculus Example Queries

A nonprocedural query language equivalent in power to the tuple Find the loan-number, branch-name, and amount for loans of over
relational calculus $1200
Each query is an expression of the form: {< l, b, a > | < l, b, a > loan a > 1200}
Find the names of all customers who have a loan of over $1200
{ < x1, x2, , xn > | P(x1, x2, , xn)}
{< c > | l, b, a (< c, l > borrower < l, b, a > loan a > 1200)}
x1, x2, , xn represent domain variables
P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus Find the names of all customers who have a loan from the
Perryridge branch and the loan amount:
{< c, a > | l (< c, l > borrower b(< l, b, a > loan

b = Perryridge))}
or {< c, a > | l (< c, l > borrower < l, Perryridge, a > loan)}
Example Queries Safety of Expressions

Find the names of all customers having a loan, an account, or { < x1, x2, , xn > | P(x1, x2, , xn)}
both at the Perryridge branch:
is safe if all of the following hold:
{< c > | l ({< c, l > borrower
b,a(< l, b, a > loan b = Perryridge)) 1.All values that appear in tuples of the expression are values
a(< c, a > depositor from dom(P) (that is, the values appear either in P or in a tuple
b,n(< a, b, n > account b = Perryridge))} of a relation mentioned in P).
2.For every there exists subformula of the form x (P1(x)), the
Find the names of all customers who have an account at all subformula is true if and only if there is a value of x in dom(P1)
branches located in Brooklyn: such that P1(x) is true.
{< c > | s, n (< c, s, n > customer) 3. For every for all subformula of the form x (P1 (x)), the
subformula is true if and only if P1(x) is true for all values x
x,y,z(< x, y, z > branch y = Brooklyn) from dom (P1).
a,b(< x, y, z > account < c,a > depositor)}
Result of branch- Perryridge (loan)

branch-name = Perryridge loan)
End of Chapter 3
Database System Concepts 3.88 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Loan Number and the Amount of the Loan Names of All Customers Who Have
Either a Loan or an Account
Customers With An Account But No Loan

Result of borrower loan
Result of customer-
customer-name
Result of branch- Perryridge (borrower loan)
branch-name = Perryridge
Result of the Subexpression Largest Account Balance in the Bank
Customers Who Live on the Same Street and In the Customers With Both an Account and a Loan
Same City as Smith at the Bank
Result of customer-
branch-name(customer-
Result of branch-
customer-name, loan-
loan-number, amount
(borrower loan) customer-city =
Harrison
Harrison(customer account depositor))
Result of customer- branch-name(depositor account)

branch-name(branch-
Result of branch-
customer-name, branch-
branch-city =
Brooklyn(branch))
Brooklyn
The credit-
credit-info Relation Result of customer- credit-balance) as
customer-name, (limit credit-
credit-
credit-available (credit-
(credit-info).
The pt- The pt-
pt-works Relation After Grouping
pt-works Relation
branch-name sum salary, max(salary

Result of branch-
branch-name sum(salary)
Result of branch- sum(salary) (pt-
(pt-works) max(salary)) as
max-salary (pt-
max- (pt-works)
The employee and ft-

ft-works Relations The Result of employee ft-
ft-works
The Result of employee ft-

ft-works Result of employee ft-
ft-works
Result of employee ft-
ft-works Tuples Inserted Into loan and borrower
Names of All Customers Who Have a

Loan at the Perryridge Branch E-R Diagram
The branch Relation The loan Relation
The borrower Relation
Database System Concepts 3.119 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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Chapter 3: Relational Model Example of a Relation

Structure of Relational Databases

Basic Structure Attribute Types

Relation Schema Relation Instance

Jones Main Harrison

Relations are Unordered Database

E.g.: account : stores information about accounts

E-R Diagram for the Banking Enterprise Keys

Schema Diagram for the Banking Enterprise

Query Languages Relational Algebra

Project Operation Example Project Operation

Relation r: A B C A1, A2, , Ak (r)

Union Operation Example Union Operation

1 E.g. to find all customers with either an account or a loan

Set Difference Operation Example Set Difference Operation

Composition of Operations Rename Operation

rxs Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.

Banking Example Example Queries

branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets) Find all loans of over $1200

customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-only) amount > 1200 (loan)

Example Queries Example Queries

(borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))

Formal Definition Additional Operations

Another Division Example Division Operation (Cont.)

Assignment Operation Example Queries

Example Queries Extended Relational-

Find all customers who have an account at all branches located

Given relation credit-info(customer-name, limit, credit-balance), Aggregate operation in relational algebra

Aggregate Operation Example Aggregate Operation Example

sum-C g sum(balance) (account)

Aggregate Functions (Cont.) Outer Join

Outer Join Example Outer Join Example

Left Outer Join

Null Values Modification of the Database

Deletion Deletion Examples

r1 branch-city = Needham (account branch)

Insertion Insertion Examples

Views View Definition

View Examples Updates Through View

Updates Through Views (Cont.) Views Defined Using Other Views

Predicate Calculus Formula Banking Example

Example Queries Example Queries

{t | s borrower( t[customer-name] = s[customer-name])

Example Queries Example Queries

{t | s borrower(t[customer-name] = s[customer-name] {t | s loan(s[branch-name] = Perryridge

{t | s borrower( t[customer-name] = s[customer-name]

Domain Relational Calculus Example Queries

{< c, a > | l (< c, l > borrower b(< l, b, a > loan

Example Queries Safety of Expressions

Result of branch- Perryridge (loan)

Database System Concepts 3.88 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Customers With An Account But No Loan

Result of the Subexpression Largest Account Balance in the Bank

Result of customer- branch-name(depositor account)

branch-name sum salary, max(salary

The employee and ft-

The Result of employee ft-

Names of All Customers Who Have a

The branch Relation The loan Relation

The borrower Relation

Database System Concepts 3.119 Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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