NUMBER

When a Noun denotes a single object, it is said to be Singular: man, sun.

When a Noun denotes more than one object of the kind, it is said to be Plural: men,
suns.

Obs. Number is the grammatical distinction between nouns or names of things,

corresponding to the natural distinction of one or more than one in the things
themselves (unity and plurality).

The Plural of Nouns is formed from the Singular. In the oldest form of the English
language, several plural endings existed. Of these one only remains in active force in
modern English, namely the ending s or es.

Regular Plurals in -es, -s.

When the s sound can be conveniently attached without making an additional

syllable, s only is used:boy, boy-s; girl, girl-s ; lion, lion-s; elephant, elephant-s;
Caesar, the Caesar-s; Pitt, the Pitt-s.

But when the s sound cannot be attached without making an additional syllable, es is
used: as, fox, fox-es; church, church-es. This is the case when the noun already ends
in a sound of s; viz. s, sh, ch, x, z : gas, gas-es; summons, summons-es; lass, lass-es;
fish, fish-es; birch, birch-es; box, box-es; topaz, topaz-es; .Fitz, the Fitz-es.

When ch is sounded as k, s only is added: as monarch, monarch-s. The sound of th is

voiced [z] before s; mouth, mouths; path, paths. Also s is voiced in house, houses.

The following lists of nouns in o may be useful:

o with plural -oes

Singular. Plural.
buffalo buffaloes
calico (cotton cloth) calicoes
cargo cargoes
domino dominoes
echo echoes
flamingo flamingoes
hero heroes
magnifico (a noble man) magnificoes
manifesto manifestoes
mosquito mosquitoes
motto mottoes
mulatto mulattoes
negro negroes
no noes*
potato potatoes
tomato tomatoes
tornado tornadoes
volcano volcanoes

* i.e, persons voting " No " as opposed to "Aye."

o with plural -os :

Singular. Plural.
bravo bravos
canto (division of a long poem) cantos
cento centos
duodecimo duodecimos
embryo embryos
grotto grottos
octavo octavos
portico porticos
quarto (1/4 of a sheet of paper) quartos
rondo rondos
solo solos
stiletto stilettos
tyro (novice) tyros
virtuoso virtuosos (-i)
folio (a leaf of a manuscript) folios (io)
nuncio (papal legate) nuncios (io)
oratorio (religious choral work) oratorios (io)
portfolio portfolios (io)

It will be observed that nouns which take a plural in -os are mostly foreign words
imperfectly naturalised. A few fluctuate in the spelling of their plurals: calico,
innuendo, mosquito, mulatto, portico (os and oes), etc.

Nouns in -f, -fe, and -if

These as a general rule change the f into v before the plural ending: leaf, leaves; wife,
wives; wolf, wolves.

But nouns in ief, oof, ff, rf, usually take simple s: brief, briefs (official letter/concose
article); chief, chiefs; grief, griefs; hoof, hoofs; roof, roofs; proof, proofs;cliff, cliffs;
skiff, skiffs; whiff, whiffs (puff of air); dwarf, dwarfs; scarf, scarfs; turf, turfs (grassy
soil).

Staff however makes staves ; and wharf, scarf, turf, sometimes take a plural in -
ves (wharves, scarves, turves). Thief makes thieves ; fife, fifes ; and strife, strifes

Nouns in -y.

Final -y not immediately preceded by a vowel is changed into ies: lady, ladies. .

But when a vowel immediately precedes, the y remains unchanged: boy, boys; day,
days; chimney, chimneys; attorney, attorneys. Nouns ending in -quy
take ies: soliloquy, soliloquies.

Proper names in y do not usually change the y: the three Marys (but also Maries). So
also guy makes guys.

Obs. Such spellings as chimnies, attornies, although frequently used, are

accordingly to be avoided.

A few remains of other plurals exists:

1 Inflexion by change in the body of the word:

man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; louse, lice; mouse,
mice.

2 Plurals in -n or -en:

ox, oxen; eye, eyen (=eyes, Spencer, Shakspeare) shoe, shoon (=shoes; Sir Walter
Scott.) brother, brethern (where there is internal changes besides) child, children (Old
English, childer)

To these may be added:

cow, kine (=cows); hose, hosen.

N.B. Swine is not a plural form, the plural of sow is sows.

3 The plural the same as the singular is present in some cases owing to the loss of
final vowel or other sign of the plural distinction: sheep, sheep; deer, deer; swine,
swine.
 Obs. 1. The words deer, sheep, swine, do not have a plural marker in the oldest
form of English.

Obs. 2. The names of most fishes and of some birds are used in the singular
collectively, as: to fish for trout, salmon, mackerel; to shoot grouse (wild bird),
snipe (long-necked bird), wild-duck.

In the same way are used the nouns: head, brace, dozen, pair, couple, yoke,
score, hundred, etc., as: so many head of deer; twenty brace of partridges; a
dozen pair of gloves, twelve yoke of oxen.

Obs. 3. In such expressions as 100,000 foot, 10,000 horse, the noun soldiers is
omitted for brevity.

Obs. 4. Some difficulty is presented by a few compound words, the elements of

which have not perfectly coalesced (fused). When the latter element is an
Adjective, qualifying a preceding Noun, the plural sign is usually attached to
the the noun: as: court-martial, courts-martial; knight-errant, knights-
errant; States-General.
Court-martials is used only for different sittings of a court-martial.

When two titles are united, the last usually takes the plural, as: major-generals;
a few old expressions sometimes where both words are pluralised, following
the French rule, as: knights-templars, lords-lieutenants, lords-justices.

Double Plurals

The following double forms are used with a difference of meaning :

brother: brothers, children of the same parent; bretheren (old form), now used in
figurative sense; members of a society.
die : dies, for stamping; dice, for play.
penny: pennies, the coins so called; pence, of sums of money.
genius: geniuses, highly gifted men; genii, supernatural beings.
index: indexes, to a book; indices, in algebra.
pea (a late word), peas, separate seeds ; pease, collective. [The s is part of the root:
Latin pisum.]
Nouns used only in the singular (Singularia Tantum)

Some nouns, owing to the nature of their meaning, are used only in the singular
number. Such are the names of materials or substances (a.k.a. mass nouns): as, wine
water, oxygen, gold, silver; and of qualities : as, bravery, hardness, wit, humour.
When such nouns take a plural, it is in a different sense from the singular ; for
example :

1. Denoting different sorts of the same thing: thus the nouns wine, brandy, sugar,
marble, have no plural as denoting the substances or things so called; but we may
speak of wines, brandies, sugars, marbles, in the sense of different sorts of wine,
brandy, etc.

particular quality, good or bad: thus negligences (Common Prayer) denotes instances
of negligence; beauties, points or features of beauty; animosities, hostile feelings, etc.

Nouns used only in the Plural (Pluralia Tantum)

Other nouns exist only in the plural, the things themselves having a kind of plurality
about them:

1. Names of many common instruments which have two parts forming a kind of pair:
bellows (foale), scissors, pincers (clete), shears (foarfec mare de tuns), tongs
(cletior), tweezers (penset), spectacles.

2. Names of certain articles of dress formed in a similar manner: trousers, drawers,

breeches (short tight pants).

3. Names of diseases and ailments, showing themselves by many marks or symptoms:

measles, mumps, staggers (in animals).

4. Names of games: billiards, draughts, etc.

5. Others are miscellaneous: Commons (House of), obsequies, nuptials; matins,

vespers; proceeds (of a sale) ; thanks; dumps, etc.
N.B. A few nouns hang in suspense between singular and plural:

Alms : originally singular (0. E. aelmesse, " who asked an alms," Acts ii. 3 ; " much
alms." Now used only in the plural.

Amends: really a plural; but also used with a singular meaning (recompense,
compensation); used in the idiom " to make amends" (to compensate for an injury,
insult, loss).

Eaves: often used in the plural, though having a singular form, too (eave) and
corresponding to streain or borul unei plrii.

Means: in sense of manner, expedient: strictly plural; but also used as singular: "A
means to do the prince my master good." (Shaks. Winter's Tale, iv. 3.) Especially in
the phrases " by this means;" " a means to an end " (in common use). But the word
can be used as plural when it denotes a number of acts or expedients :'Thou hast
shown me (the means of revenge, and be assured I will embrace them," (Ivanhoe, ch.
xxvii.)

News (originally Genitive : hwaet niwes = quid novi Oliphant, p. 17): once used
either as singular or plural.:" This news hath made thee a most ugly man."
(Shakspeare, K. John, iii. 1.) "Ten days ago I drowned these news in tears." (Id.
Henry VI. Part III. ii. 1.) Now always singular:" ill news flies apace." (Proverb.) "
The latest news is. . . "

Pains: in sense of effort, labour : strictly plural, but used rather as a collective
singular; thus we now say, much pains, great pains, a great deal of pains. But the
plural also occurs: " Your pains are registered . . .." (Shaks. Macbeth, i. 3.)

Riches : properly singular, the s being part of the original word (Fr. richesse):

"Riches fineless [endless] is as poor as winter/To him that ever fears he shall be poor."
(Shaks. Othello, iii. 3.) Now always plural: " Riches are not for ever." (Prov. xxvii,
24.) " Riches make themselves wings." (Ib.'xxiii. 5.)

Tidings: plural, but in older writers used also as singular: " To bring this tidings to
the ... king." (Shaks. Rich. III. iv. 3.) (news)

Wages: strictly plural, but formerly used as singular: " He earneth wages to put it into
a bag with holes." (Hay. i. 6.) The singular wage is also used.
Obs. The names of certain sciences derived from Greek are plural in form in English
as in Greek, but commonly treated as singular: physics, metaphysics, dynamics,
mechanics, hydraulics, hydrostatics, pneumatics:

" Mathematics becomes the instrument of Astronomy and Physics." (Lewes.) "
Mechanics is the science in which are investigated the actions of bodies on one
another." (Nat. Cycl.)

But some of these, especially mathematics, metaphysics, physics, are also treated as
plural:'' His [Plato's] metaphysics are of a nature to frighten away all but the most
determined students." (Lewes.)

" The mathematics lead us to lay out of account all that is not proved." (Sir W.
Hamilton, Essays.)

APPENDIX

A number of nouns borrowed from foreign languages without change, retain their
proper plurals (a.k.a. foreign plurals). The following are of frequent occurrence :

Singular. Plural.
formula (L.) formulae
larva (L.) larvae
nebula (L.) nebulae
focus (L.) foci
genius (L.) genii
magus (L.) magi
radius (L.) radii
terminus (L.) termini
tumulus (L.) tumuli
addendum (L.) addenda
animalculum (L.) animalcula
datum (L.) data
desideratum (L.) desiderata
dictum (L.) dicta
effluvium (L.) effluvia
erratum (L.) errata
memorandum (L.) memoranda
stratum (L.) strata strata
automaton (Gr.) automata
phenomenon (Gr.) phenomena
genus (L.) genera
axis (L.) axes
ellipsis (G.) ellipses
metamorphosis (Gr.) metamorphoses
parenthesis (Gr.) parentheses
index (L.) indices
vertex (L.) vertices
appendix (L.) appendices
cherub (Hebr.) cherubim (also cherubs)
seraph (Hebr.) seraphim (seraphs)
bandit banditti (Ital.) (bandits)
beau (Fr.) beaux
bureau bureaux
flambeau (Fr.) flambeaux
savant (Fr.) savants

Obs. 1. All such words must be regarded as imperfectly naturalized, since they still
follow the laws of the languages from which they are derived. (Please, consult a good
dictionary for a correct pronunciation).

Obs. 2 Some foreign words in use exist in the plural only: e.g. literati (Lat.),
aborigines (Lat.), antipodes (Gr.), landes (Fr.), i.e. sandy plains ; agenda (Lat.), i.e.
business to be transacted; ephemera, creatures of a day; minutiae, small niceties (of
criticism).