DISCOVERY LEARNING

Hiero II requested that Archimedes find a method for determining whether a

crown was pure gold or alloyed with silver. When he stepped into a bath he
realized that a given weight of gold would displace less water than an equal
weight of silver (which is less dense than gold); at this point he shouted,
"EUREKA" (I have found it!). Discovery learning is based on this "Aha!"
method.

Discovery Learning is an inquiry-based learning method. The concept of

discovery learning has appeared numerous times throughout history as a
part of the educational philosophy of many great philosophers particularly
Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Dewey. "There is an intimate and necessary
relation between the processes of actual experience and education" wrote
Dewey. It also enjoys the support of learning theorists and psychologists
Piaget, Bruner, and Papert. It has enjoyed a few positive swings of the
educational-trend pendulum in American education, but it has never
received overwhelming acceptance.

Discovery learning takes place most notably in problem solving situations

where the learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge to
discover the truths that are to be learned. It is a personal, internal,
constructivist learning environment. Bruner wrote "Emphasis on discovery in
learning has precisely the effect on the learner of leading him to be a
constructionist, to organize what he is encountering in a manner not only
designed to discover regularity and relatedness, but also to avoid the kind of
information drift that fails to keep account of the uses to which information
might have to be put."

"You can't teach people everything they need to know. The best you can do is position them where they
can find what they need to know when they need to know it." - Seymour Papert

www.skagitwatershed.org

Summary: Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction,

discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and
relationships for themselves.
Originator: Jerome Bruner (1915-)

Keywords: Inquiry-based learning, constructivism

Discovery Learning (Bruner)

Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that

takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or
her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and
relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world
by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and
controversies, or performing experiments. As a result, students may be more
more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own
(in contrast to a transmissionist model). Models that are based upon
discovery learning model include: guided discovery, problem-based learning,
simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning, among
others.

Proponents of this theory believe that discovery learning has many

advantages, including:

• encourages active engagement

• promotes motivation
• promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
• the development of creativity and problem solving skills.
• a tailored learning experience

Critics have sometimes cited disadvantages including:

• creation of cognitive overload

• potential misconceptions
• teachers may fail to detect problems and misconceptions

The theory is closely related to work by Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert.

www.learning-theories.com

Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction and is

considered a constructivist based approach to education. It is supported by
the work of learning theorists and psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner,
and Seymour Papert. Although this form of instruction has great popularity,
there is considerable debate in the literature concerning its efficacy (Mayer,
2004).
Jerome Bruner is thought to have originated discovery learning in the 1960s,
but his ideas are very similar those of earlier writers (e.g. John Dewey).
Bruner argues that “Practice in discovering for oneself teaches one to
acquire information in a way that makes that information more readily viable
in problem solving" (Bruner, 1961, p.26). This philosophy later became the
discovery learning movement of the 1960s. The mantra of this philosophical
movement suggests that we should 'learn by doing'.

Discovery learning takes place in problem solving situations where the

learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge and is a method of
instruction through which students interact with their environment by
exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and
controversies, or performing experiments.

Criticism of Pure Discovery Learning

Several groups of educators have found evidence that pure discovery
learning is a less effective as an instructional strategy for novices, than more
direct forms of instruction (e.g. Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999). While discovery
learning is very popular, it is often used inappropriately, to teach novices
(Kirschner et al., 2006).

People can "learn by doing." A debate in the instructional community now

questions the effectiveness of this model of instruction (Kirschner, Sweller, &
Clark, 2006). Bruner (1961) suggested that students are more likely to
remember concepts if they discover them on their own. This is as opposed to
those they are taught directly. However, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)
report there is little empirical evidence to support discovery learning.
Kirschner et al. suggest that fifty years of empirical data does not support
those using these unguided methods of instruction.

Debates about instructional strategies (like direct instruction and discovery

learning) are driven by research and empirical studies that can be found in
the literature. Mayer (2004) proposes that interest in discovery learning has
waxed and waned since the 1960s. In each case the empirical literature has
shown that the use of pure discovery methods is not suggested, yet time and
time again researchers have renamed their instructional methods only to be
discredited again, to rename name their movement again. Mayer asked the
question "Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery
Learning?" While discovery for one's self may be an engaging form of
learning, it may also be frustrating. Mayer's critique is not the only one;
other well known authors have begun to question the efficacy of this form of
instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006; Tuovinen and Sweller , 1999).
The main idea behind these critiques is that learners need guidance
(Kirschner et al., 2006), later as they gain confidence and become competent
then they may learn though discovery.

Discovery Based Learning in Special Needs Education

With the push for special needs students to take part in the general
education curriculum, prominent researchers in the field doubt if general
education classes rooted in discovery based learning can provide an
adequate learning environment for special needs students. Kauffman has
related his concerns over the use of discovery based learning as opposed to
direct instruction. Kauffman comments,

Nothing is gained by keeping students guessing about what it is they are supposed
to learn. In all or nearly all of the education programs in which the majority of
students can be demonstrated to be highly successful in learning the facts and skills
they need, these facts and skills are taught directly rather than indirectly. That is
the teacher is in control of instruction, not the student, and information is given to
students (2002).

This view is exceptionally strong when focusing on students with math

disabilities and math instruction. Fuchs et al. (2008) comment,

Typically developing students profit from the general education mathematics

program, which relies, at least in part, on a constructivist, inductive instructional
style. Students who accrue serious mathematics deficits, however, fail to profit from
those programs in a way that produces understanding of the structure, meaning,
and operational requirements of mathematics… Effective intervention for students
with a math disability requires an explicit, didactic form of instruction…

Fuchs et al. go on to note that explicit or direct instruction should be followed

up with instruction that anticipates misunderstanding and counters it with
precise explanations.

It must be noted, however, that few studies focus on the long-term results for direct instruction.
Long-term studies may find that direct instruction is not superior to other instructional methods.
For instance, a study found that in a group of fourth graders that were instructed for 10 weeks
and measured for 17 weeks direct instruction did not lead to any stronger results in the long term
than did practice alone (Dean & Kuhn, 2006). Other researchers note that there is promising
work being done in the field to incorporate constructivism and cooperative grouping so that
curriculum and pedagogy can meet the needs of diverse learners in an inclusion setting
(Brantlinger, 1997). However, it is questionable how successful these developed strategies are
for student outcomes both initially and in the long term.

Inquiry-Based Learning
Inquiry-Based Teaching Strategies

Our colleagues at McMaster, suggest that:

Teaching through “inquiry” involves engaging students in the research

process with instructor support and coaching at a level appropriate to their
starting skills. Students learn discipline specific content but in doing so,
engage and refine their inquiry skills. An inquiry course:

• Is question driven, rather than topic or thesis driven

• Begins with a general theme to act as a starting point or trigger for
learning
• Emphasizes asking good researchable questions on the theme, and
coaches students in doing this
• Builds library, interview, and web search skills, along with the critical
thinking skills necessary for thoughtful review of the information.
Coaches students on how to best report their learning in oral or written
form.
• Provides some mechanism (interviews, drafts, minutes of group
meetings, bench mark activities, etc.) to help students monitor their
progress within the course.
• Draws on the expertise and knowledge of the instructor to model effective inquiry and to
promote reflection. http://inquiry.uiyc.edu/inquiry_definition.php3

Guidelines for Creating an Inquiry-Based Class

Denise Jarrett, writer and researcher for Inquiry Strategies for Science and
Mathematics Learning, indicates that inquiry-based instruction improves
student attitude and achievement, facilitates student understanding, fosters
critical thinking skills, and facilitates mathematical discovery. She provides
guidelines for creating an inquiry-based classroom that provide students with
the time, space, resources, and safety necessary for learning. These include:

• Engages students in designing the learning environment.

• Integrates science laboratories into the regular class day
• Uses inquiry in the mathematics classroom
• Employs management strategies to facilitate inquiry
• Reflects the nature of inquiry by displaying and demanding respect for diverse ideas,
abilities, and experiences; modeling and emphasizing the skills, attitudes, and values of
scientific inquiry: wonder, curiosity, and respect toward nature; enables students to have
a significant voice in decisions about the content and context of their work; and nurtures
collaboration among students www.queensu.ca

Inquiry-Based Learning
 Illustration
developed
by Joe
Exline
What
is
inqui
What is Inquiry-Based Learning?
ry-
base Based on John Dewey’s philosophy that education begins with the curiosity of
d the learner, one of the most important teaching practices used today is the
learn use of inquiry in the classroom. With the inquiry method of instruction,
ing? students arrive at an understanding of concepts by themselves and the
responsibility for learning rests with them.
An old
adage At McMaster University in Hamilton, Inquiry-Based Courses are offered to all
states: first year students. The following is how this institution defines Inquiry-Based
"Tell Learning.
me and
I forget, Inquiry is a form of Self-Directed Learning and follows the four basic stages
show defining self-directed learning. Students take more responsibility for:
me and
I • Determining what they need to learn
rememb • Identifying resources and how best to learn from them
er, • Using resources and reporting their learning
involve • Assessing their progress in learning
me and
I A comprehensive senior inquiry course will have all four of these elements.
underst Students will take the initiative and be largely responsible for seeing they
and." successfully complete their learning in a given area. Generally, students
The last draft a “learning contract” and then execute it – the instructor submits a
part of grade on completion of the contract.
this
stateme Why Teach Inquiry?
nt is the
essence Encouraging learners to be self-directed is a critical skill that students need to acquire in order to
of be successful in post-secondary education. This method encourages students through supports to
inquiry- build research skills that can be used throughout their educational experiences. In addition,
based students determine their own learning needs through a learning contract.
learning
, says "Inquiry" is defined as "a seeking for truth, information, or knowledge -- seeking information by
our questioning." Individuals carry on the process of inquiry from the time they are born until they
worksh die. This is true even though they might not reflect upon the process. Infants begin to make sense
op of the world by inquiring. From birth, babies observe faces that come near, they grasp objects,
author they put things in their mouths, and they turn toward voices. The process of inquiring begins
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involve idea that takes an inquiry in a methods like inquiry. Springfield, Oregon, talks about how she sometimes adjusts inquiry lessons based on
new direction. student feedback.
and repeat the expected answers.

Some of the discouragement of our natural inquiry process may come from a lack of
understanding about the deeper nature of inquiry-based learning. There is even a tendency to
view it as "fluff" learning. Effective inquiry is more than just asking questions. A complex
process is involved when individuals attempt to convert information and data into useful
knowledge. Useful application of inquiry learning involves several factors: a context for
questions, a framework for questions, a focus for questions, and different levels of questions.
Well-designed inquiry learning produces knowledge formation that can be widely applied.

Importance of Inquiry

Memorizing facts and information is not the most important skill in today's world. Facts change,
and information is readily available -- what's needed is an understanding of how to get and make
sense of the mass of data.

Educators must understand that schools need to go beyond data and information accumulation
and move toward the generation of useful and applicable knowledge . . . a process supported by
inquiry learning. In the past, our country's success depended on our supply of natural resources.
Today, it depends upon a workforce that "works smarter."

Through the process of inquiry, individuals construct much of their understanding of the natural
and human-designed worlds. Inquiry implies a "need or want to know" premise. Inquiry is not so
much seeking the right answer -- because often there is none -- but rather seeking appropriate
resolutions to questions and issues. For educators, inquiry implies emphasis on the development
of inquiry skills and the nurturing of inquiring attitudes or habits of mind that will enable
individuals to continue the quest for knowledge throughout life.

Content of disciplines is very important, but as a means to an end, not as an end in itself. The
knowledge base for disciplines is constantly expanding and changing. No one can ever learn
everything, but everyone can better develop their skills and nurture the inquiring attitudes
necessary to continue the generation and examination of knowledge throughout their lives. For
modern education, the skills and the ability to continue learning should be the most important
outcomes. The rationale for why this is necessary is explained in the following diagrams.

Illustration developed by Joe Exline

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illustrates how
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and individuals
within society
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generate and
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Experts' knowledge is not just a set of facts -- it is structured to be accessible, transferable, and
applicable to a variety of situations. . Experts can easily retrieve their knowledge and learn new
information in their fields with little effort.
(The list above was adapted from "How People Learn," published by the National Research Council in 1999.)

Illustration developed by Joe Exline

This figure illustrates the attributes necessary for both generating and effectively transmitting the
fund of knowledge.
We propose that the attributes experts use to generate new knowledge are very similar to the
attributes essential for the effective transmission of knowledge within the learner's environment
-- the essentials of effective inquiry learning.

Inquiry is important in the generation and transmission of knowledge. It is also an essential for
education, because the fund of knowledge is constantly increasing. The figure below illustrates
why trying to transmit "what we know," even if it were possible, is counterproductive in the long
run. This is why schools must change from a focus on "what we know" to an emphasis on "how
we come to know."

Illustration developed by Joe Exline

This chart illustrates that while knowledge is constantly increasing, so is the boundary of the
unknown. An effective and well-rounded education gives individuals very different but
interrelated views of the world. All disciplines have important relationships that provide a natural
and effective framework for the organization of the school curriculum, as shown in the chart
below. The subject matter of disciplines can be set in the larger context of a conceptual
framework . This framework is crucial for understanding change and also for the organization
3

of the discipline and its application to the natural and human-designed worlds.

3.