Induction Motor Control Theory.

Induction Motor Design

has a major effect on the behaviour and performance of an
induction motor. Very often the details or class of design of a
motor are not well understood or promoted.

i) Stator design.
The stator is the outer body of the motor which houses the driven
windings on an iron core. In a single speed three phase motor design,
the standard stator has three windings, while a single phase motor
typically has two windings. The stator core is made up of a stack of
round pre-punched laminations pressed into a frame which may be
made of aluminium or cast iron. The laminations are basically round
with a round hole inside through which the rotor is positioned. The
inner surface of the stator is made up of a number of deep slots or
grooves right around the stator. It is into these slots that the windings
are positioned. The arrangement of the windings or coils within the
stator determines the number of poles that the motor has.
A standard bar magnet has two poles, generally known as North and
South. Likewise, an electromagnet also has a North and a South pole.
As the induction motor Stator is essentially like one or more
electromagnets depending on the stator windings, it also has poles in
multiples of two. i.e. 2 pole, 4 pole, 6 pole etc.
The winding configuration, slot configuration and lamination steel all
have an effect on the performance of the motor. The voltage rating of
the motor is determined by the number of turns on the stator and the
power rating of the motor is determined by the losses which comprise
copper loss and iron loss, and the ability of the motor to dissipate the
heat generated by these losses.
The stator design determines the rated speed of the motor and most
of the full load, full speed characteristics.

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ii) Rotor Design.

The Rotor comprises a cylinder made up of round laminations pressed
onto the motor shaft, and a number of short-circuited windings.The
rotor windings are made up of rotor bars passed through the rotor,
from one end to the other, around the surface of the rotor. The bars
protrude beyond the rotor and are connected together by a shorting
ring at each end. The bars are usually made of aluminium or copper,
but sometimes made of brass. The position relative to the surface of
the rotor, shape, cross sectional area and material of the bars
 determine the rotor characteristics.
Essentially, the rotor windings exhibit
inductance and resistance, and these characteristics can effectively be
dependant on the frequency of the current flowing in the rotor.
A bar with a large cross sectional area will exhibit a low resistance,
while a bar of a small cross sectional area will exhibit a high
resistance. Likewise a copper bar will have a low resistance compared
to a brass bar of equal proportions.
Positioning the bar deeper into the rotor, increases the amount of iron
around the bar, and consequently increases the inductance exhibited
by the rotor. The impedance of the bar is made up of both resistance
and inductance, and so two bars of equal dimensions will exhibit a
different A.C. impedance depending on their position relative to the
surface of the rotor. A thin bar which is inserted radialy into the rotor,
with one edge near the surface of the rotor and the other edge
towards the shaft, will effectively change in resistance as the
frequency of the current changes. This is because the A.C. impedance
of the outer portion of the bar is lower than the inner impedance at
high frequencies lifting the effective impedance of the bar relative to
the impedance of the bar at low frequencies where the impedance of
both edges of the bar will be lower and almost equal.
The rotor design determines the starting characteristics.

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iii) Equivalent Circuit.

The induction motor can be treated essentially as a transformer for
analysis. The induction motor has stator leakage reactance, stator
copper loss elements as series components, and iron loss and
magnetising inductance as shunt elements. The rotor circuit likewise
has rotor leakage reactance, rotor copper (aluminium) loss and shaft
power as series elements.
The transformer in the centre of the equivalent circuit can be
eliminated by adjusting the values of the rotor components in
accordance with the effective turns ratio of the transformer.

From the equivalent circuit and a basic knowledge of the operation of

the induction motor, it can be seen that the magnetising current
component and the iron loss of the motor are voltage dependant, and
not load dependant. Additionally, the full voltage starting current of a
particular motor is voltage and speed dependant, but not load
dependant.
The magnetising current varies depending on the design of the motor.
For small motors, the magnetising current may be as high as 60%, but
for large two pole motors, the magnetising current is more typically 20
- 25%. At the design voltage, the iron is typically near saturation, so
the iron loss and magnetising current do not vary linearly with voltage
with small increases in voltage resulting in a high increase in
magnetising current and iron loss.

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iv) Starting Characteristics.

In order to perform useful work, the induction motor must be started
from rest and both the motor and load accelerated up to full speed.
Typically, this is done by relying on the high slip characteristics of the
motor and enabling it to provide the acceleration torque.
Induction motors at rest, appear just like a short circuited transformer,
and if connected to the full supply voltage, draw a very high current
known as the "Locked Rotor Current". They also produce torque which
is known as the "Locked Rotor Torque". The Locked Rotor Torque
(LRT) and the Locked Rotor Current (LRC) are a function of the
terminal voltage to the motor, and the motor design. As the motor
accelerates, both the torque and the current will tend to alter with
rotor speed if the voltage is maintained constant.
The starting current of a motor, with a fixed voltage, will drop very
slowly as the motor accelerates and will only begin to fall significantly
when the motor has reached at least 80% full speed. The actual
curves for induction motors can vary considerably between designs,
but the general trend is for a high current until the motor has almost
reached full speed. The LRC of a motor can range from 500% Full
Load Current (FLC) to as high as 1400% FLC. Typically, good motors
fall in the range of 550% to 750% FLC.
The starting torque of an induction motor starting with a fixed voltage,
will drop a little to the minimum torque known as the pull up torque as
the motor accelerates, and then rise to a maximum torque known as
the breakdown or pull out torque at almost full speed and then drop to
zero at synchronous speed. The curve of start torque against rotor
speed is dependant on the terminal voltage and the motor/rotor
design.

The LRT of an induction motor can vary from as low as 60% Full Load
Torque (FLT) to as high as 350% FLT. The pull-up torque can be as
low as 40% FLT and the breakdown torque can be as high as 350%
FLT. Typical LRTs for medium to large motors are in the order of 120%
FLT to 280% FLT.

The power factor of the motor at start is typically 0.1 - 0.25, rising to
a maximum as the motor accelerates, and then falling again as the
motor approaches full speed.
A motor which exhibits a high starting current, i.e. 850% will generally
produce a low starting torque, whereas a motor which exhibits a low
starting current, will usually produce a high starting torque. This is the
reverse of what is generally expected.
The induction motor operates due to the torque developed by the
interaction of the stator field and the rotor field. Both of these fields
are due to currents which have resistive or in phase components and
reactive or out of phase components. The torque developed is
dependant on the interaction of the in phase components and
consequently is related to the I2R of the rotor. A low rotor resistance
will result in the current being controlled by the inductive component
of the circuit, yielding a high out of phase current and a low torque.
Figures for the locked rotor current and locked rotor torque are almost
always quoted in motor data, and certainly are readily available for
induction motors. Some manufactures have been known to include this
information on the motor name plate. One additional parameter which
would be of tremendous use in data sheets for those who are
engineering motor starting applications, is the starting efficiency of the
motor. By the starting efficiency of the motor, I refer to the ability of
the motor to convert amps into newton meters. This is a concept not
generally recognised within the trade, but one which is extremely
useful when comparing induction motors. The easiest means of
developing a meaningful figure of merit, is to take the locked rotor
torque of the motor (as a percentage of the full load torque) and
divide it by the locked rotor current of the motor (as a percentage of
the full load current).

i.e

Starting Locked Rotor Torque

efficiency =
Locked Rotor Current

If the terminal voltage to the motor is reduced while it is starting, the

current drawn by the motor will be reduced proportionally. The torque
developed by the motor is proportional to the current squared, and so
a reduction in starting voltage will result in a reduction in starting
current and a greater reduction in starting torque. If the start voltage
applied to a motor is halved, the start torque will be a quarter, likewise
a start voltage of one third will result in a start torque of one ninth.

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v) Runnng Characteristics.
Once the motor is up to speed, it operates at low slip, at a speed
determined by the number of stator poles.The frequency of the current
flowing in the rotor is very low. Typically, the full load slip for a
standard cage induction motor is less than 5%. The actual full load slip
of a particular motor is dependant on the motor design with typical full
load speeds of four pole induction motor varying between 1420 and
1480 RPM at 50 Hz. The synchronous speed of a four pole machine at
50 Hz is 1500 RPM and at 60 Hz a four pole machine has a
synchronous speed of 1800 RPM.
The induction motor draws a magnetising current while it is operating.
The magnetising current is independent of the load on the machine,
but is dependant on the design of the stator and the stator voltage.
The actual magnetising current of an induction motor can vary from as
low as 20% FLC for large two pole machines to as high as 60% for
small eight pole machines. The tendency is for large machines and
high speed machines to exhibit a low magnetising current, while low
speed machines and small machines exhibit a high magnetising
current. A typical medium sized four pole machine has a magnetising
current of about 33% FLC.
A low magnetising current indicates a low iron loss, while a high
magnetising current indicates an increase in iron loss and a resultant
reduction in operating efficiency.
The resistive component of the current drawn by the motor while
operating, changes with load, being primarily load current with a small
current for losses. If the motor is operated at minimum load, i.e. open
shaft, the current drawn by the motor is primarily magnetising current
and is almost purely inductive. Being an inductive current, the power
factor is very low, typically as low as 0.1. As the shaft load on the
motor is increased, the resistive component of the current begins to
rise. The average current will noticeably begin to rise when the load
current approaches the magnetising current in magnitude. As the load
current increases, the magnetising current remains the same and so
the power factor of the motor will improve. The full load power factor
of an induction motor can vary from 0.5 for a small low speed motor
up to 0.9 for a large high speed machine.
The losses of an induction motor comprise: iron loss, copper loss,
windage loss and frictional loss. The iron loss, windage loss and
frictional losses are all essentially load independent, but the copper
loss is proportional to the square of the stator current. Typically the
efficiency of an induction motor is highest at 3/4 load and varies from
less than 60% for small low speed motors to greater than 92% for
large high speed motors. Operating power factor and efficiencies are
generally quoted on the motor data sheets.

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vi) Design Classification.

There are a number of design/performance classifications which are
somewhat uniformly accepted by different standards organisations.
These design classifications apply particularly to the rotor design and
hence affect the starting characteristics of the motors. The two major
classifications of relevance here are design A, and design B.
Design A motors have a shallow bar rotor, and are characterised by a
very high starting current and a low starting torque. Typical values are
850% current and 120% torque. Shallow bar motors usually have a
low slip, i.e. 1480 RPM.
Design B motors have a deeper bar rotor and are characterised by
medium start current and medium starting torque. Typical design B
values are 650% current and 180% torque. The slip exhibited by
design B motors is usually greater than the equivalent design A
motors. i.e. 1440 RPM.
Design F motors are often known as Fan motors having a high rotor
resistance and high slip characteristics. The high rotor resistance
enables the fan motor to be used in a variable speed application where
the speed is reduced by reducing the voltage. Design F motors are
used primarily in fan control applications with the motor mounted in
the air flow. These are often rated as AOM or Air Over Motor
machines.

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vii) Frame Classification.

Induction motors come in two major frame types, these being Totally
Enclosed Forced air Cooled (TEFC), and Drip proof.
The TEFC motor is totally enclosed in either an aluminium or cast iron
frame with cooling fins running longitudinally on the frame. A fan is
fitted externally with a cover to blow air along the fins and provide the
cooling. These motors are often installed outside in the elements with
no additional protection and so are typically designed to IP55 or
better.
Drip proof motors use internal cooling with the cooling air drawn
through the windings. They are normally vented at both ends with an
internal fan. This can lead to more efficient cooling, but requires that
the environment is clean and dry to prevent insulation degradation
from dust, dirt and moisture. Drip proof motors are typically IP22 or
IP23.

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viii) Temperature Classification.

There are two main temperature classifications applied to induction
motors. These being Class B and Class F.The temperature class refers
to the maximum allowable temperature rise of the motor windings at a
specified maximum coolant temperature.
Class B motors are rated to operate with a maximum coolant
temperature of 40 degrees C and a maximum winding temperature
rise of 80 degrees C. This leads to a maximum winding temperature of
120 degrees C.
Class F motors are typically rated to operate with a maximum coolant
temperature of 40 degrees C and a maximum temperature rise of 100
degrees C resulting in a potential maximum winding temperature of
140 degrees C.
Operating at rated load, but reduced cooling temperatures gives an
improved safety margin and increased tolerance for operation under
an overload condition. If the coolant temperature is elevated above 40
degrees C then the motor must be derated to avoid premature failure.
Note: Some Class F motors are designed for a maximum coolant
temperature of 60 degrees C, and so there is no derating necessary up
to this temperature.
Operating a motor beyond its maximum, will not cause an immediate
failure, rather a decrease in the life expectancy of that motor. A
common rule of thumb applied to insulation degradation, is that for
every ten degree C rise in temperature, the expected life span is
halved. Note: the power dissipated in the windings is the copper loss
which is proportional to the square of the current, so an increase of
10% in the current drawn, will give an increase of 21% in the copper
loss, and therefore an increase of 21% in the temperature rise which is
16.8 degrees C for a Class B motor, and 21 degrees C for a Class F
motor. This approximates to the life being reduced to a quarter of that
expected if the coolant is at 40 degrees C. Likewise operating the
motor in an environment of 50 degrees C at rated load will elevate the
insulation temperature by 10 degrees C and halve the life expectancy
of the motor.

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ix) Power factor correction

Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors across
the supply to neutralise the inductive component of the current. The
power factor correction may be applied either as automatic bank
correction at the main plant switchboard, or as static correction
installed and controlled at each starter in such a fashion that it is only
in circuit when the motor is on line.
Automatic bank correction consists of a number of banks of power
factor correction capacitors, each controlled by a contactor which in
turn is controlled by a power factor controller. The power factor
controller monitors the supply coming into the switchboard and adds
sufficient capacitance to neutralise the inductive current. These
controllers are usually set to adjust the power factor to 0.9 - 0.95
lagging. (inductive)
Static correction is controlled by a contactor when the motor is started
and when the motor is stopped. In the case of a Direct On Line starter,
the capacitors are often controlled by the main DOL contactor which is
also controlling the motor. With static correction, it is important that
the motor is under corrected rather than over corrected. This is
because the capacitance and the inductance of the motor form a
resonant circuit. While the motor is connected to the supply, there is
no problem. Once the motor is disconnected from the supply, it begins
to decelerate. As it decelerates, it generates voltage at the frequency
at which it is rotating. If the capacitive reactance equals the inductive
reactance, i.e. unity power factor, we have resonance. If the motor is
critically corrected (pf = 1) or over corrected, then as the motor slows,
the voltage it is generating will pass through the resonant frequency
set up between the motor and the capacitors. If this happens, major
problems can occur. There will be very high voltages developed across
the motor terminals and capacitors causing insulation damage, high
resonant currents can flow, and transient torque's generated can
cause mechanical equipment failure.
The correct method for sizing static correction capacitors, is to
determine the magnetising current of the motor being corrected, and
connect sufficient capacitance to give 80% current neutralisation.
Charts and formula based on motor size alone can be totally erroneous
and should be avoided if possible. There are some power authorities
who specify a fixed amount of KVAR per kilowatt, independent of the
size or speed. This is a dangerous practice. power factor correction

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x) Single phase motors.

In order for a motor to develop a rotating torque in one direction, it is
important that the magnetic field rotates in one direction only. In the
case of the three phase motor, there is no problem and the field
follows the phase sequence. If voltage is applied to a single winding,
there are still multiples of two poles which alternate between North
and South at the supply frequency, but there is no set rotation for the
vectors. This field can be correctly considered to be two vectors
rotating in opposite directions. To establish a direction of rotation for
the vector, a second phase must be added. The second phase is
applied to a second winding and is derived from the first phase by
using the phase shift of a capacitor in a capacitor start motor, or
inductance and resistance in an induction start motor. (sometimes
known as a split phase motor.) Small motors use techniques such as a
shaded pole to set the direction of rotation of the motor.
More information

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xi) Slip Ring Motors.

Slip ring motors or wound rotor motors are a variation on the standard
cage induction motors. The slip ring motor has a set of windings on the
rotor which are not short circuited, but are terminated to a set of slip
rings for connection to external resistors and contactors. The slip ring
motor enables the starting characteristics of the motor to be totally
controlled and modified to suit the load. A particular high resistance
can result in the pull out torque occurring at almost zero speed
providing a very high locked rotor torque at a low locked rotor current.
As the motor accelerates, the value of the resistance can be reduced
altering the start torque curve in a manner such that the maximum
torque is gradually moved towards synchronous speed. This results in
a very high starting torque from zero speed to full speed at a relatively
low starting current. This type of starting is ideal for very high inertia
loads allowing the machine to get to full speed in the minimum time
with minimum current draw.
The down side of the slip ring motor is that the sliprings and brush
assemblies need regular maintenance which is a cost not applicable to
the standard cage motor. If the rotor windings are shorted and a start
is attempted, i.e the motor is converted to a standard induction motor,
it will exhibit an extremely high locked rotor current, typically as high
as 1400% and a very low locked rotor torque, perhaps as low as 60%.
In most applications, this is not an option.
Another use of the slipring motor is as a means of speed control. By
modifying the speed torque curve, by altering the rotor resistors, the
speed at which the motor will drive a particular load can be altered.
This has been used in winching type applications, but does result in a
lot of heat generated in the rotor resistors and consequential drop in
overall efficiency.

Non-Fundamental Voltages Current

Up to this point, weve talked about varying the voltage and frequency applied to an AC
induction motor as if the voltages and currents were still sinusoidal in shape. In fact,
depending on the type of adjustable frequency controller, various nonfundamental voltage
and current components will exist (Figure 12).
Typical Adjustable Frequency Controller Voltage and Current Waveforms
Figure 12

The waveforms in Figure 12 are often looked at in the frequency domain (Laplace or
Fourier transform). In the waveforms of Figure 12 a, b, c, d, the higher frequency
components (non-fundamental components) are "harmonics of the fundamental
frequency. That is they occur at frequencies equal to integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency. For the PWM waveforms of Figure 12 e, f, the switching (carrier) frequency is
usually not synchronized to the fundamental frequency. This leads to a set of non-
fundamental frequency components which are not true harmonics of the fundamental
frequency.

Whether or not the non-fundamental current components are harmonics of the

fundamental, they do not contribute to the normal production of torque. They can, in fact,
produce pulsating (ripple) torques which lead to other problems. The nonfundamental
voltages similarly do not provide fundamental flux for the development of torque.

Additional Motor Losses

While these non-fundamental components do not provide basic torque, they do cause
motor losses. Since the stator winding carries the total current (fundamental and non-
fundamental components), the RMS value of the total current produces the stator winding
12R loss. The RMS value of the non-fundamental currents can range from I % of the
fundamental to over 10%, depending on the controller and motor combination, as well as
the operating point.

The non-fundamental components in the stator can also be "transferred" to the rotor by
transformer action (induction). Depending on the specific motor design, including rotor
slot details, the rotor may "see" a significant increase in its non-fundamental (non-slip
frequency) current. This will then result in added rotor I2R losses.

The non-fundamental voltage harmonics will produce flux variations which are not
adding to motor torque, but which do cause eddy current and hysteresis losses in the
motor magnetic laminations. Again, the specific combination of controller and motor will
strongly influence the magnitude of these additional losses.

Heat Dissipation

Adding to the motor heating caused by the additional losses discussed above, a "self-
ventilated (e.g. DPG, TEFC) motor WM have less ability to dissipate these losses at
lower speeds (Figure 13). For this reason, it is often appropriate to use a motor with
ventilation which is speed-independent (TENV, DPFV, TEBC) when operating across a
wide range of speeds. As can be discerned from Figure 13, the desirability of speed-
independent cooling is typically more pronounced for larger machines.

Influence of Speed on Heat Dissipation

Figure 13

In addition to the problem of loss of dissipation at lower speeds, the use of a TEFC or
DPG motor for operation at high speeds can result in large windage losses, as well as
acoustic noise problems.
Switched Voltage Wavefronts

The use of semiconductor switching devices to create the adjustable frequency input to
AC induction motors can result in some effects beyond the "non-fundamental
components" issues. The waveforms seen in Figure 14 are expanded views of the PWM
voltage of Figure 12 e. As power transistors have evolved, their ability to "turn on"
quickly has also improved dramatically. This implies a high level of "dV/dt" as defined in
Figure 14 b. Both this high dV/dt as well as the higher peak voltages seen by a motor
applied with this type of controller need to be considered in designing motors for these
applications.

Adjustable Frequency Controller Output Voltage Waveforms

Figure 14

The higher peak voltages seen at the motor terminals provide a higher dielectric stress on
the motor insulation system. These peaks occur at each transition (carrier frequency for a
PWM controller) on each of the motor phases. Due to the repetitive nature of this voltage,
an inadequate motor insulation system (from a dielectric standpoint) will often fall in a
rather short period of time (days to months).

The high dV/dt of these switched wavefronts contributes to the overshoot and ringing of
the voltage at the motor terminals, but also has an interesting effect of its own. Based on
Equation 4, a high dV/dt can cause a high current flow in a capacitive circuit.

I = C x dV/dt (4)

While motors are often not thought of as having a characteristic capacitance, there are
both phase to ground as well as phase to phase capacitances associated with AC induction
motors. This capacitive effect is "distributed in that the windings have various
"Positions" relative to the stator core, as well as to the other phases. This causes the
capacitively-coupled current flow to also be (unequally) distributed. These currents,
while very short in duration, also occur at every transition (dV/dt) and can cause failure
of an inadequately insulated motor in a short time.
Another result of these capacitively-coupled currents is that if a ground connection is not
provided (from the motor frame), significant psuedo-square wave voltages will occur on
the motor frame which can be a hazard to personnel. A proper ground connection will
eliminate these voltages, but there will be fairly high frequency currents flowing to
ground.

The leads connecting the controller to the motor also will experience some of the same
capacitively coupled currents as the motor (phase to phase and phase to ground).

Noise

Another effect of the non-fundamental waveforms of Figure 12 on AC induction motors

is the possibility to produce acoustic noise. Beyond noise due to "windage" effects, the
majority of motor noise is due to components deforming in a manner which can pump air
in the audible frequency range.

While all structures have characteristic sets of natural frequencies and corresponding
mode shapes, some of these are of more concern. If any of the non-fundamental
waveform frequencies are closely aligned with motor natural frequencies, the forces
produces by these voltages and currents may excite mode shapes which could result in
high audible noise at a specific frequency.

The use of motor designs which have as "sparse" as possible a set of (potentially noise
producing) natural frequencies is a good starting point to reduce opportunities for noise
problems. By appropriate design of the electromagnetic structure, the force distribution of
the higher frequencies can also be mitigated.

Oversizing / Derating

An approach to applying AC induction motors to adjustable-h-frequency, variable-speed

operation can be to oversize or derate motors for the application. This is an approach
which may in simple applications be successful, but a number of potential hazards exist.

Whether or not a motor is derated / oversized will not be of any help if the insulation
system is inadequate for the switched voltage wavefronts from the controller. A motor
loaded to less dm full load can fail just as quickly as one fully utilized if the insulation
dielectric capability is lacking.

A motor which is derated will have lower reactances, which in a CSI application may be
fine, but can cause excessive current ripple in a PWM environment. This high ripple can
cause IIET trips of the controller, overheating of the controller transistors, or motor
overheating. Also a derated motor will have low damping as a result of the its low slip,
which can cause instability problems in open loop drives, or modeling problems in a
field-oriented controller.

Since AC induction motors can have a significant level of no load (magnetizing) current
compared to full load current, a derated motor will often operate at a reduced power
factor at the application load. This can result in higher full load current which may
exceed the continuous rated current of the controller.

Electrical transients

This chapter explores the response of capacitors and inductors sudden changes in DC
voltage (called a transient voltage), when wired in series with a resistor. Unlike resistors,
which respond instantaneously to applied voltage, capacitors and inductors react over
time as they absorb and release energy.

Capacitor transient response

Because capacitors store energy in the form of an electric field, they tend to act like small
secondary-cell batteries, being able to store and release electrical energy. A fully
discharged capacitor maintains zero volts across its terminals, and a charged capacitor
maintains a steady quantity of voltage across its terminals, just like a battery. When
capacitors are placed in a circuit with other sources of voltage, they will absorb energy
from those sources, just as a secondary-cell battery will become charged as a result of
being connected to a generator. A fully discharged capacitor, having a terminal voltage of
zero, will initially act as a short-circuit when attached to a source of voltage, drawing
maximum current as it begins to build a charge. Over time, the capacitor's terminal
voltage rises to meet the applied voltage from the source, and the current through the
capacitor decreases correspondingly. Once the capacitor has reached the full voltage of
the source, it will stop drawing current from it, and behave essentially as an open-circuit.

When the switch is first closed, the voltage across the capacitor (which we were told was
fully discharged) is zero volts; thus, it first behaves as though it were a short-circuit. Over
time, the capacitor voltage will rise to equal battery voltage, ending in a condition where
the capacitor behaves as an open-circuit. Current through the circuit is determined by the
difference in voltage between the battery and the capacitor, divided by the resistance of
10 k. As the capacitor voltage approaches the battery voltage, the current approaches
zero. Once the capacitor voltage has reached 15 volts, the current will be exactly zero.
Let's see how this works using real values:

---------------------------------------------
| Time | Battery | Capacitor | Current |
|(seconds) | voltage | voltage | |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 0 | 15 V | 0 V | 1500 uA |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 0.5 | 15 V | 5.902 V | 909.8 uA |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 1 | 15 V | 9.482 V | 551.8 uA |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 2 | 15 V | 12.970 V | 203.0 uA |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 3 | 15 V | 14.253 V | 74.68 uA |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 4 | 15 V | 14.725 V | 27.47 uA |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 5 | 15 V | 14.899 V | 10.11 uA |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 6 | 15 V | 14.963 V | 3.718 uA |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 10 | 15 V | 14.999 V | 0.068 uA |
---------------------------------------------
The capacitor voltage's approach to 15 volts and the current's approach to zero over time
is what a mathematician would call asymptotic: that is, they both approach their final
values, getting closer and closer over time, but never exactly reaches their destinations.
For all practical purposes, though, we can say that the capacitor voltage will eventually
reach 15 volts and that the current will eventually equal zero.

Using the SPICE circuit analysis program, we can chart this asymptotic buildup of
capacitor voltage and decay of capacitor current in a more graphical form (capacitor
current is plotted in terms of voltage drop across the resistor, using the resistor as a shunt
to measure current):

capacitor charging
v1 1 0 dc 15
r1 1 2 10k
c1 2 0 100u ic=0
.tran .5 10 uic
.plot tran v(2,0) v(1,2)
.end

As you can see, I have used the .plot command in the netlist instead of the more
familiar .print command. This generates a pseudo-graphic plot of figures on the
computer screen using text characters. SPICE plots graphs in such a way that time is on
the vertical axis (going down) and amplitude (voltage/current) is plotted on the horizontal
(right=more; left=less). Notice how the voltage increases (to the right of the plot) very
quickly at first, then tapering off as time goes on. Current also changes very quickly at
first then levels off as time goes on, but it is approaching minimum (left of scale) while
voltage approaches maximum.

REVIEW:
Capacitors act somewhat like secondary-cell batteries when faced with a sudden
change in applied voltage: they initially react by producing a high current which
tapers off over time.
A fully discharged capacitor initially acts as a short circuit (current with no
voltage drop) when faced with the sudden application of voltage. After charging
fully to that level of voltage, it acts as an open circuit (voltage drop with no
current).
In a resistor-capacitor charging circuit, capacitor voltage goes from nothing to full
source voltage while current goes from maximum to zero, both variables changing
most rapidly at first, approaching their final values slower and slower as time goes
on.
Inductor transient response

Inductors have the exact opposite characteristics of capacitors. Whereas capacitors store
energy in an electric field (produced by the voltage between two plates), inductors store
energy in a magnetic field (produced by the current through wire). Thus, while the stored
energy in a capacitor tries to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals, the stored
energy in an inductor tries to maintain a constant current through its windings. Because of
this, inductors oppose changes in current, and act precisely the opposite of capacitors,
which oppose changes in voltage. A fully discharged inductor (no magnetic field), having
zero current through it, will initially act as an open-circuit when attached to a source of
voltage (as it tries to maintain zero current), dropping maximum voltage across its leads.
Over time, the inductor's current rises to the maximum value allowed by the circuit, and
the terminal voltage decreases correspondingly. Once the inductor's terminal voltage has
decreased to a minimum (zero for a "perfect" inductor), the current will stay at a
maximum level, and it will behave essentially as a short-circuit.

When the switch is first closed, the voltage across the inductor will immediately jump to
battery voltage (acting as though it were an open-circuit) and decay down to zero over
time (eventually acting as though it were a short-circuit). Voltage across the inductor is
determined by calculating how much voltage is being dropped across R, given the current
through the inductor, and subtracting that voltage value from the battery to see what's left.
When the switch is first closed, the current is zero, then it increases over time until it is
equal to the battery voltage divided by the series resistance of 1 . This behavior is
precisely opposite that of the series resistor-capacitor circuit, where current started at a
maximum and capacitor voltage at zero. Let's see how this works using real values:
---------------------------------------------
| Time | Battery | Inductor | Current |
|(seconds) | voltage | voltage | |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 0 | 15 V | 15 V | 0 |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 0.5 | 15 V | 9.098 V | 5.902 A |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 1 | 15 V | 5.518 V | 9.482 A |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 2 | 15 V | 2.030 V | 12.97 A |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 3 | 15 V | 0.747 V | 14.25 A |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 4 | 15 V | 0.275 V | 14.73 A |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 5 | 15 V | 0.101 V | 14.90 A |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 6 | 15 V | 37.181 mV | 14.96 A |
|-------------------------------------------|
| 10 | 15 V | 0.681 mV | 14.99 A |
---------------------------------------------

Just as with the RC circuit, the inductor voltage's approach to 0 volts and the current's
approach to 15 amps over time is asymptotic. For all practical purposes, though, we can
say that the inductor voltage will eventually reach 0 volts and that the current will
eventually equal the maximum of 15 amps.
Again, we can use the SPICE circuit analysis program to chart this asymptotic decay of
inductor voltage and buildup of inductor current in a more graphical form (inductor
current is plotted in terms of voltage drop across the resistor, using the resistor as a shunt
to measure current):

inductor charging
v1 1 0 dc 15
r1 1 2 1
l1 2 0 1 ic=0
.tran .5 10 uic
.plot tran v(2,0) v(1,2)
.end

Notice how the voltage decreases (to the left of the plot) very quickly at first, then
tapering off as time goes on. Current also changes very quickly at first then levels off as
time goes on, but it is approaching maximum (right of scale) while voltage approaches
minimum.

REVIEW:
A fully "discharged" inductor (no current through it) initially acts as an open
circuit (voltage drop with no current) when faced with the sudden application of
voltage. After "charging" fully to the final level of current, it acts as a short circuit
(current with no voltage drop).
In a resistor-inductor "charging" circuit, inductor current goes from nothing to full
value while voltage goes from maximum to zero, both variables changing most
rapidly at first, approaching their final values slower and slower as time goes on.

Voltage and current calculations

There's a sure way to calculate any of the values in a reactive DC circuit over time. The
first step is to identify the starting and final values for whatever quantity the capacitor or
inductor opposes change in; that is, whatever quantity the reactive component is trying to
hold constant. For capacitors, this quantity is voltage; for inductors, this quantity is
current. When the switch in a circuit is closed (or opened), the reactive component will
attempt to maintain that quantity at the same level as it was before the switch transition,
so that value is to be used for the "starting" value. The final value for this quantity is
whatever that quantity will be after an infinite amount of time. This can be determined by
analyzing a capacitive circuit as though the capacitor was an open-circuit, and an
inductive circuit as though the inductor was a short-circuit, because that is what these
components behave as when they've reached "full charge," after an infinite amount of
time.
The next step is to calculate the time constant of the circuit: the amount of time it takes
for voltage or current values to change approximately 63 percent from their starting
values to their final values in a transient situation. In a series RC circuit, the time constant
is equal to the total resistance in ohms multiplied by the total capacitance in farads. For a
series LR circuit, it is the total inductance in henrys divided by the total resistance in
ohms. In either case, the time constant is expressed in units of seconds and symbolized by
the Greek letter "tau" ():

The rise and fall of circuit values such as voltage and current in response to a transient is,
as was mentioned before, asymptotic. Being so, the values begin to rapidly change soon
after the transient and settle down over time. If plotted on a graph, the approach to the
final values of voltage and current form exponential curves.

As was stated before, one time constant is the amount of time it takes for any of these
values to change about 63 percent from their starting values to their (ultimate) final
values. For every time constant, these values move (approximately) 63 percent closer to
their eventual goal. The mathematical formula for determining the precise percentage is
quite simple:

The letter e stands for Euler's constant, which is approximately 2.7182818. It is derived
from calculus techniques, after mathematically analyzing the asymptotic approach of the
circuit values. After one time constant's worth of time, the percentage of change from
starting value to final value is:

After two time constant's worth of time, the percentage of change from starting value to
final value is:
After ten time constant's worth of time, the percentage is:

The more time that passes since the transient application of voltage from the battery, the
larger the value of the denominator in the fraction, which makes for a smaller value for
the whole fraction, which makes for a grand total (1 minus the fraction) approaching 1, or
100 percent.

We can make a more universal formula out of this one for the determination of voltage
and current values in transient circuits, by multiplying this quantity by the difference
between the final and starting circuit values:

Let's analyze the voltage rise on the series resistor-capacitor circuit shown at the
beginning of the chapter.
Note that we're choosing to analyze voltage because that is the quantity capacitors tend to
hold constant. Although the formula works quite well for current, the starting and final
values for current are actually derived from the capacitor's voltage, so calculating voltage
is a more direct method. The resistance is 10 k, and the capacitance is 100 F
(microfarads). Since the time constant () for an RC circuit is the product of resistance
and capacitance, we obtain a value of 1 second:

If the capacitor starts in a totally discharged state (0 volts), then we can use that value of
voltage for a "starting" value. The final value, of course, will be the battery voltage (15
volts). Our universal formula for capacitor voltage in this circuit looks like this:

So, after 7.25 seconds of applying voltage through the closed switch, our capacitor
voltage will have increased by:
Since we started at a capacitor voltage of 0 volts, this increase of 14.989 volts means that
we have 14.989 volts after 7.25 seconds.

The same formula will work for determining current in that circuit, too. Since we know
that a discharged capacitor initially acts like a short-circuit, the starting current will be the
maximum amount possible: 15 volts (from the battery) divided by 10 k (the only
opposition to current in the circuit at the beginning):

We also know that the final current will be zero, since the capacitor will eventually
behave as an open-circuit, meaning that eventually no electrons will flow in the circuit.
Now that we know both the starting and final current values, we can use our universal
formula to determine the current after 7.25 seconds of switch closure in the same RC
circuit:

Note that the figure obtained for change is negative, not positive! This tells us that current
has decreased rather than increased with the passage of time. Since we started at a current
of 1.5 mA, this decrease (-1.4989 mA) means that we have 0.001065 mA (1.065 A)
after 7.25 seconds.

We could have also determined the circuit current at time=7.25 seconds by subtracting
the capacitor's voltage (14.989 volts) from the battery's voltage (15 volts) to obtain the
voltage drop across the 10 k resistor, then figuring current through the resistor (and the
whole series circuit) with Ohm's Law (I=E/R). Either way, we should obtain the same
answer:

The universal time constant formula also works well for analyzing inductive circuits.
Let's apply it to our example L/R circuit in the beginning of the chapter:

With an inductance of 1 henry and a series resistance of 1 , our time constant is equal to
1 second:

Because this is an inductive circuit, and we know that inductors oppose change in current,
we'll set up our time constant formula for starting and final values of current. If we start
with the switch in the open position, the current will be equal to zero, so zero is our
starting current value. After the switch has been left closed for a long time, the current
will settle out to its final value, equal to the source voltage divided by the total circuit
resistance (I=E/R), or 15 amps in the case of this circuit.
If we desired to determine the value of current at 3.5 seconds, we would apply the
universal time constant formula as such:

Given the fact that our starting current was zero, this leaves us at a circuit current of
14.547 amps at 3.5 seconds' time.

Determining voltage in an inductive circuit is best accomplished by first figuring circuit

current and then calculating voltage drops across resistances to find what's left to drop
across the inductor. With only one resistor in our example circuit (having a value of 1 ),
this is rather easy:

Subtracted from our battery voltage of 15 volts, this leaves 0.453 volts across the inductor
at time=3.5 seconds.

REVIEW:
Universal Time Constant Formula:


To analyze an RC or L/R circuit, follow these steps:

(1): Determine the time constant for the circuit (RC or L/R).
(2): Identify the quantity to be calculated (whatever quantity whose change is
directly opposed by the reactive component. For capacitors this is voltage; for
inductors this is current).
(3): Determine the starting and final values for that quantity.
(4): Plug all these values (Final, Start, time, time constant) into the universal time
constant formula and solve for change in quantity.
(5): If the starting value was zero, then the actual value at the specified time is
equal to the calculated change given by the universal formula. If not, add the
change to the starting value to find out where you're at.

Why L/R and not LR?

It is often perplexing to new students of electronics why the time-constant calculation for
an inductive circuit is different from that of a capacitive circuit. For a resistor-capacitor
circuit, the time constant (in seconds) is calculated from the product (multiplication) of
resistance in ohms and capacitance in farads: =RC. However, for a resistor-inductor
circuit, the time constant is calculated from the quotient (division) of inductance in
henrys over the resistance in ohms: =L/R.

This difference in calculation has a profound impact on the qualitative analysis of

transient circuit response. Resistor-capacitor circuits respond quicker with low resistance
and slower with high resistance; resistor-inductor circuits are just the opposite,
responding quicker with high resistance and slower with low resistance. While capacitive
circuits seem to present no intuitive trouble for the new student, inductive circuits tend to
make less sense.
Key to the understanding of transient circuits is a firm grasp on the concept of energy
transfer and the electrical nature of it. Both capacitors and inductors have the ability to
store quantities of energy, the capacitor storing energy in the medium of an electric field
and the inductor storing energy in the medium of a magnetic field. A capacitor's
electrostatic energy storage manifests itself in the tendency to maintain a constant voltage
across the terminals. An inductor's electromagnetic energy storage manifests itself in the
tendency to maintain a constant current through it.

Let's consider what happens to each of these reactive components in a condition of

discharge: that is, when energy is being released from the capacitor or inductor to be
dissipated in the form of heat by a resistor:

In either case, heat dissipated by the resistor constitutes energy leaving the circuit, and as
a consequence the reactive component loses its store of energy over time, resulting in a
measurable decrease of either voltage (capacitor) or current (inductor) expressed on the
graph. The more power dissipated by the resistor, the faster this discharging action will
occur, because power is by definition the rate of energy transfer over time.

Therefore, a transient circuit's time constant will be dependent upon the resistance of the
circuit. Of course, it is also dependent upon the size (storage capacity) of the reactive
component, but since the relationship of resistance to time constant is the issue of this
section, we'll focus on the effects of resistance alone. A circuit's time constant will be less
(faster discharging rate) if the resistance value is such that it maximizes power dissipation
(rate of energy transfer into heat). For a capacitive circuit where stored energy manifests
itself in the form of a voltage, this means the resistor must have a low resistance value so
as to maximize current for any given amount of voltage (given voltage times high current
equals high power). For an inductive circuit where stored energy manifests itself in the
form of a current, this means the resistor must have a high resistance value so as to
maximize voltage drop for any given amount of current (given current times high voltage
equals high power).

This may be analogously understood by considering capacitive and inductive energy

storage in mechanical terms. Capacitors, storing energy electrostatically, are reservoirs of
potential energy. Inductors, storing energy electromagnetically (electrodynamically), are
reservoirs of kinetic energy. In mechanical terms, potential energy can be illustrated by a
suspended mass, while kinetic energy can be illustrated by a moving mass. Consider the
following illustration as an analogy of a capacitor:

The cart, sitting at the top of a slope, possesses potential energy due to the influence of
gravity and its elevated position on the hill. If we consider the cart's braking system to be
analogous to the resistance of the system and the cart itself to be the capacitor, what
resistance value would facilitate rapid release of that potential energy? Minimum
resistance (no brakes) would diminish the cart's altitude quickest, of course! Without any
braking action, the cart will freely roll downhill, thus expending that potential energy as it
loses height. With maximum braking action (brakes firmly set), the cart will refuse to roll
(or it will roll very slowly) and it will hold its potential energy for a long period of time.
Likewise, a capacitive circuit will discharge rapidly if its resistance is low and discharge
slowly if its resistance is high.

Now let's consider a mechanical analogy for an inductor, showing its stored energy in
kinetic form:
This time the cart is on level ground, already moving. Its energy is kinetic (motion), not
potential (height). Once again if we consider the cart's braking system to be analogous to
circuit resistance and the cart itself to be the inductor, what resistance value would
facilitate rapid release of that kinetic energy? Maximum resistance (maximum braking
action) would slow it down quickest, of course! With maximum braking action, the cart
will quickly grind to a halt, thus expending its kinetic energy as it slows down. Without
any braking action, the cart will be free to roll on indefinitely (barring any other sources
of friction like aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance), and it will hold its kinetic
energy for a long period of time. Likewise, an inductive circuit will discharge rapidly if
its resistance is high and discharge slowly if its resistance is low.

Hopefully this explanation sheds more light on the subject of time constants and
resistance, and why the relationship between the two is opposite for capacitive and
inductive circuits.

Complex voltage and current calculations

There are circumstances when you may need to analyze a DC reactive circuit when the
starting values of voltage and current are not respective of a fully "discharged" state. In
other words, the capacitor might start at a partially-charged condition instead of starting
at zero volts, and an inductor might start with some amount of current already through it,
instead of zero as we have been assuming so far. Take this circuit as an example, starting
with the switch open and finishing with the switch in the closed position:

Since this is an inductive circuit, we'll start our analysis by determining the start and end
values for current. This step is vitally important when analyzing inductive circuits, as the
starting and ending voltage can only be known after the current has been determined!
With the switch open (starting condition), there is a total (series) resistance of 3 , which
limits the final current in the circuit to 5 amps:
So, before the switch is even closed, we have a current through the inductor of 5 amps,
rather than starting from 0 amps as in the previous inductor example. With the switch
closed (the final condition), the 1 resistor is shorted across (bypassed), which changes
the circuit's total resistance to 2 . With the switch closed, the final value for current
through the inductor would then be:

So, the inductor in this circuit has a starting current of 5 amps and an ending current of
7.5 amps. Since the "timing" will take place during the time that the switch is closed and
R2 is shorted past, we need to calculate our time constant from L1 and R1: 1 Henry
divided by 2 , or = 1/2 second. With these values, we can calculate what will happen
to the current over time. The voltage across the inductor will be calculated by multiplying
the current by 2 (to arrive at the voltage across the 2 resistor), then subtracting that
from 15 volts to see what's left. If you realize that the voltage across the inductor starts at
5 volts (when the switch is first closed) and decays to 0 volts over time, you can also use
these figures for starting/ending values in the general formula and derive the same
results: