Chapter 2 - Railway Alignment

CENG 5271 - Railway Engineering

Mequanent Mulugeta
(mequanent.mulugeta@aait.edu.et) 1
AAiT
 Vertical Alignment (profile)
The longitudinal section of rail line is consisted of flat road, ramp
and vertical curve.
The railway profile is composed of
grade sections which length and
gradient is different each other. The
feature of grade section is
expressed in the length and
Gradient.

Main design components are:

Gradient (algebraic difference)
Vertical curve (sag or crest)
Radius of curve
Grade section

Mequanent M. 2
 Features of grade section
Gradient and length are used
to represent characteristic of
grade section.
Length of grade section is
refer to the horizontal range
between two grade change
points.

What to do?
Determining the maximum grade
Determining the length of grade section
Determining the connection at the point of gradient change
Design the grade section
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 Vertical Grades

Rail rarely exceeds 1% (2-

2.5% for industry lines)
Highway 4% common 6% on
ramps
Up to 8% on county roads
LRT maximum 4 to 6% (up
to 10% for short sections)

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 Gradients
Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives.
To reach various stations at different elevations
To follow the natural contours of the ground to the
extent possible
To reduce the cost of earthwork.

Types of gradients

The following types of gradients are used on the railways.

a) Ruling gradient
b) Pusher or helper gradient
c) Momentum gradient
d) Gradients in station yards
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 Maximum grade of main line
For a newly-built railway, maximum grade is
In railway line for passenger traffic-
the maximum value of gradient.
Maximum calculated gradient
For mixed passenger and freight traffic, the
maximum grade is determined by the
traction mass of freight train.
In the section Hauling by single locomotive,
it is ruling grade;
In the section Hauling by two or more
locomotives, it is pusher grade.
For passenger traffic, as motor cars use high
power engine, light type car, and fine
quality brake equipment, the maximum
gradient will not be limited by the traction
mass of passenger train.
The maximum grade shall be determined
after technical and economic comparisons in
terms of engineering conditions and
operation conditions.
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E.g. A CRH3 EMU composed of 3 motors and 3 trailers, with 21.05 kW/t of average
unit power per ton mass and run upward at speed of 300km/h, the maximum gradient
can be calculated as follows:
Solution: Unit resistance is given
for each train model

The result indicated that, a CRH3 EMU can run on a grade of 12

with speed of 300 km/h.
To add the number of motors can increase the total power of EMU
so that the unit power per ton mass can be increased.
On the other hand, to reduce the number of car in a unit can also
attain the purpose to increase the unit power per ton mass.
In this way, the maximum gradient in railway line for passenger
traffic will not be limited by traction power.
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 Selection of maximum grade
1. For passenger traffic lines, the major influencing factors for determination of
gradient are
Topography
Height control
2. For mixed freight and passenger
a) Ruling grade; The ruling grade is defined here as the maximum gradient
over which a tonnage train can be hauled at a given speed by a given
locomotive consist or horsepower
b) Helper/Pusher grade: The maximum grade used in sections trains
being hauled by two or more locomotives (+ locomotive)
Limiting Grade - The gradient which can decide the maximum cargo weight of a
locomotive is called the limiting gradient.
It is often equaled to the maximum gradient.

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 Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a
section.
It determines the maximum load that can be hauled by a
locomotive on that section.
While deciding the ruling gradient of a section, it is not only the
severity of the gradient but also its length as well as its position
with respect to the gradients on both sides that have to be taken
into consideration.
The extra force P required by a locomotive to pull a train of
weight W on a gradient with an angle of inclination is
P = W sin = W tan (approximately, as is very small)
= W gradient

In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 250

In hilly terrain: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
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 Ruling grade

Example:
In a railway line for mixed freight and passenger traffic, trains composed of
cars with rolling bearing that is hauled by SS3 electric locomotive, if the
tractive mass is 3 500 tons, the calculated maximum gradient is: (Vj48 km/h
Fj317 800 NP138 t):

Mequanent M. 10
 Choice of Ruling Grade

Ruling grade shall be selected according to

railway class,
topography conditions, and
kind of traction
Ruling grades should be free of sidings, water and coaling
stations, railroad crossings at grade, freight and passenger
stations and any other cause for stops.
The gradient should be reduced to a rate on which a tonnage
train can again be started easily
The nature of traffic (A road that operates lightly loaded, fast,
expedited service need not be as much concerned about the
ruling grade as a road with a preponderance of heavy drag
freight, and tonnage train operation.
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 Minimum ruling grade Grades in stations
Generally, There is no limitation for the minimum ruling grade.
It takes 4 on consideration of topography and traction mass.
the traction mass of long term will be limited by the length of
reception-departure track.
Example;
The maximum length of reception-departure track is 1050 in ordinary line, so that
the ruling grade is 4 to meet the requirement of loaded freight train running.

Gradients in Station Yards

The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to the following reasons.
To prevent standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard
due to the combined effect of gravity and strong winds.
To reduce the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the
extent possible.
Generally recommended gradient is 1 in 1000.
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 Helper Gradient
On some special hard sections, we can Build a tunnel to across it or use a
ramp with its gradient beyond the limiting gradient, which is called the
pusher grade.
The maximum helper gradient shall be determined in terms of the tonnage
of freight train, number of locomotives, and mode of helper tractive:

Example: For dual-locomotive traction can be calculated with

following formula:

Where:
G traction mass with single locomotive on ruling grade (t);
w0w0 unit basic resistance of locomotive and car under the calculated
speed (N/kN);
coefficient of tractive mode, determined in terms of the kind of tractive,
operating mode; Mequanent M. 13
 Design of Helper Grades

Theoretically, the tractive effort that two or more locomotives can

exert together should be the sum of their drawbar pulls.
Actually only about 90% of each can be realized because of the
difficulties in securing perfect coordination between the two. Thus,
if each of two locomotives can haul 2000 tons over a gradient, the
two combined can haul not 4000 tons but 3600 tons.
Therefore, a relation between the design of the ruling grade and
that of helper grades can be developed based on Economics of
Helper Grades.

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 Momentum Gradient

Momentum - The quantity of motion of a moving body, measured

as a product of its mass and velocity.

The momentum gradient is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be
overcome by a train because of the momentum it gathers while running
on the section.
In valleys, a falling gradient is sometimes followed by a rising
gradient. In such a situation, a train coming down a falling gradient
acquires good speed and momentum, which gives additional kinetic
energy to the train and allows it to negotiate gradients steeper than the
ruling gradient.
In sections with momentum gradients there are no obstacles provided in
the form of signals, etc., which may bring the train to a critical juncture.

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 Connection of Grade Section

Algebraic difference between adjacent gradients

Definition: algebraic difference between adjacent gradients

shall be expressed in absolute value of the algebraic difference
i.
i=|i1-i2| ()
Example:
If the gradient of the first grade section i1 is 6 descending,
and the second grade section i2 is 4 ascending, then the
algebraic difference of gradient is

i=|i1-i2| =|(-6 )-(+4)|= 10

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Limited condition for Algebraic Difference of grades
There is no limit in lines for passenger traffic:
The value of longitudinal force of train at the point of gradient
change will increase with algebraic difference of gradients
At summits -formation, pull will increase and push decrease; but at
sags, it is on the contrary.
The value of longitudinal force of a train is determined in terms of
tonnage ratings, length of train, locomotive working condition, and
the profile formation, etc.
The maximum allowable algebraic difference of adjacent gradients.

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 The Theory of Compensation

Suppose a locomotive was just capable of hauling a train of 3000 tons up a

6.0 gradient without stalling/stopping. If a R curve is superimposed on
this gradient.
The total effective gradient that the locomotive must overcome is the actual
gradient of 6.0 plus the equivalent gradient for a R curve of iR, or
6.0+iR.
The train will stall. In order to convert this effective gradient of 6.0+ iR
into an effective gradient of 6.0 that the locomotive can negotiate. The
actual gradient must be reduced by iR, the design grade i should be:

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 Compensation For Curvature
Design grade
In curve, ij=i+iR imax () ; Design grade in curve: i= imax -iR ()
where, imax - maximum length of grade
iR - reduction of curve gradient
Rules for Compensation of curve resistance
1. When curvature occurs on a slight grade, it has no limiting effect, and
compensation is not necessity.
2. Grade design should ensure enough compensation of curve resistance, and avoid
too much compensation so that more distance is required to attain the desired
elevation.
3. the length of curve used in compensation formula is the length of simple circular
curve without spiral; the length of freight train is the short-term one. As the
length of short-term train is shorter than that of long-term train. Compensation in
terms of short-term train can meet the requirement of long-term train.
4. The length of compensated grade shall not be shorter and close to the length of
circular curve. The length of grade section should not be shorter than 200 meters,
and can be divided exactly by 50 meters. In general, the length of grade section
should not longer than the length of short-term freight train.
5. The precision of design gradient by curve compensation takes as 0.1.
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 Method of curvature compensation
1) The straight line longer than 200 meters between two adjacent curves can be
designed as a grade section without compensation. Its gradient takes as the
maximum grade.
2) A curve longer than a freight train can be designed as a grade section, the value of
compensation of curve is:

3) A curve shorter than a freight train can be designed as a grade section, the value of
compensation of curve is:

Where, a- deflection angle of curve (); L- length of curve (m); R- radius of curve (m);
Li - length of design grade section (m), (<= length of train)
4) A section with two short curves, if curves and intermediate straight lines are all
shorter than 200 meters, can be designed as two grades by dividing intermediate
straight line into two parts, compensation of curve as above It can also be
designed as a grade, the value of compensation of curve is:

Where, is total angle degree of all curves in compensated section.

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 Conversion gradient

If there has curve on the ramp, the additional resistance is

include of additional resistance for curve and gradient.
so:
r i

The conversion gradient:

ic r i ir i

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 Exercise 4

1. Find the steepest gradient on a 2 curve for a standard gauge

line with a ruling gradient of 1 in 200. (Hint: Calculate the
compensation amount)
2. Evaluate the conversion gradient of BC section.(length of
train is 800m).

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 Vertical Curves
Definition: For smooth riding (and good appearance) vertical curves
provide a gradual transition from one grade to another.
Vertical curve type:
Sag and Crest
Parabola and/or circular arc

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 Radius of vertical curves Criteria

1. Riding Comfort
, Gemerny, Japan, takes as 0.150.6m/s2
Mixed freight traffic and passenger traffic in China, takes as
0.15~0.2 2 , then, > . and > .
Line for high-speed passenger traffic: takes 0.4 ~ 0.5 2

then,
> .
and
> .

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 2. Ensure no derailment
when a train round a summit vertical curve, According to the experience of
the braking force of train will exert a vertical Japan railway, on consideration
component upward Sv. of safety, the rate of wheel load
On considering the most unfavorable reduction caused by the vertical
condition, suppose a train is in emergency resultant force can not larger

braking, the longitudinal push force cause by than 10%=> 0.1, so
braking is S, its vertical component is Sv/2. that the vertical radius shall
The resultant can calculated as follow: meet: R v > 0.08Vmax 2

Rate of wheel load reduction:

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 3. Radius to ensure no coupler separation
High speed train: Using tight-lock coupler, there would not
occurred coupler separation during train running.
For ordinary trains, radius to ensure no coupler separation
should meet following formula:

L - distance between bogie pivot centers

d - distance between bogie pivot center and coupler center
fR - allowable displacement of coupler center,

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 4. Radius to meet the requirement of track maintenance

A larger radius vertical curve will provide a gradual transition

from one grade to another. But it is not always the larger the
better. When the radius is larger than a definite value, it
become difficult to meet the precise of maintenance.
According to practice in railway line, the maximum of
vertical curve is 40,000 meters.

Selection of vertical curve radius

When the gradient difference of adjacent grade section on

main line is larger than or equal to a definite value, vertical
curve in circular arc shall be used for connection.

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 Geometrical elements of vertical curve
1. Tangent length, Tv Where: a -the deflection angle of
vertical angle ();
a1 , a2 -the two included angle between
grade line and level lines, (), taken as
positive when ascending, negative
when descending;
i1i2 - the two intersecting grades (),
taken as positive when ascending,
negative when descending;
i- algebraic difference between
2. Length of vertical curve Kv adjacent gradients).
Kv 2Tv (m) vertical distance y
2 = 2 2
As the value of 2 is very small, it can be omitted. So that (m)

Where, x is the distance from the calculated point to the start point of vertical
curve in meters. Mequanent M. 28
The vertical distance at the point of gradient change is called external secant
Ev, can be calculated as follows:

The height for construction at point of gradient change equal to design

height minus (at summit) or plus (at sag) the external secant. The height of
cutting or filling of subgrade shall be calculated in terms of the height for
construction.
Example: An I-grade railway line for mixed freight traffic and passenger traffic. A
is a point of gradient change. Its height of ground is 476.50 m, and design height is
472.36 m, Rv is 10000m, values of two adjacent grades are i1=6i2=-2, what is
the cutting height of point A.
Solution: Algebraic gradient difference of point A: i=6-(-2)=8()
The tangent length of vertical curve of point A, TV=40(m)
External secant of A is: (m)

Height for construction of A is: 472.36-0.08=472.28m.

The cutting height of A is: 476.50-472.28=4.22m. 29
Mequanent M.
 The minimum algebraic difference of gradients
i. To ensure no derailment
The maximum algebraic difference of
gradients to ensure no derailment
should satisfy following relation:
LZ - distance from center of gravity for car
loaded to the center of first wheel of bogie (m),
dmin - flange height (mm)
Note:
At a point of gradient change with no vertical curves, the grade section is
connected as a broken-line. When a train run through the point of gradient
change, the vibration and acceleration will occur and increase abruptly,
and riding comfort will become worse. If the front part of locomotive or
car has gone ahead to the second grade section, but the weight center of a
locomotive or car is also at the first grade section before the point of
gradient change, the front wheel of locomotive will be in suspending state.
If the suspension height is larger than the flange height, wheels will derail.
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The minimum algebraic difference of gradients .
ii. The smooth capacity by track structure

iii. In order to meet the requirements, the minimum allowable length of vertical
curve must not be shorter than 25m.
iv. The vertical curve (or gradient change point) must not be located in the same
region with transition curve, turnout and expansion rail joint.

v. The vertical curve should not be located in the same region with
the plane circular curve.
vi. For passenger lines, when the gradient difference between adjacent grades more
than 3, the grades shall be connected with vertical circular arc.
vii. The radius of vertical curve is 5000m under general condition and
3000m under difficult condition.
Mequanent M. 31
 Length of grade section
The length of grade section is the level distance between two points of
adjacent grade sections.
From engineering point, short length of grade section is much easy to
fit the rise and fall of topography, reduce the work volume of
subgrade, bridges and tunnels.
Length determined by the smooth and steady of train running (safety
and riding comfort) (longer length of grade section is much easy to
meet the requirements).
The length of grade section shall be determined after technical and
economic comparisons.
The minimum length determined by the coupler strength
Length determined by the smooth and steady of train running

Mequanent M. 32
 Length determined by the smooth and steady of train running
(Germany and Japan Practices proofed that minimum straight
between adjacent vertical curves is about 0.4Vmax. The minimum length
of grade section should be:

Where: lmin- minimum length of grade section(m);

imax- algebraic difference of adjacent grades();
RV- radius of vertical curve(m);
ensure a train not running through two adjacent points of gradient
change at the same time

standard Note: numbers in parentheses can only be used in difficult conditions

Mequanent M. 33
 Vertical Curve Resistance

For freight trains, unit curve resistance wr can be computed with

following formula:

High-speed passenger trains, formula of unit curve resistance wr is:

Instead of R with the length of curve (m) and deflection angle a (),
that is l(m), formula can be expressed as:

High-speed passenger trains, formula of unit curve resistance wr is:

Mequanent M. 34
Average unit curve resistance of freight train
Suppose the length of train is LL(m) and the mass is distributed along
train uniformly, if the unit mass per meter is q(t/m), the average unit
resistance can be computed as follows: (Ly=curve Length)

Mequanent M. 35


Equivalent Grades
It is frequently convenient to express curve resistance in terms of the
equivalent grade that would offer the same resistance. Thus curve resistance
of 1 newton per kN equal to the resistance offered by a 1 grade

In other words, the unit resistance of a 1N/KN is the same as the resistance
that a 1 grade would offer. One can convert curve resistance to the
equivalent grade, add that to the profile grade and compute the combined
effects in one operation. However, handled curve resistance should not be
overlooked

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