Fuel properties

Combustion Technology
 Contents
Classification of fuels
Definition of lower and higher
heating value
Analysis methods of solid fuels,
combustible and ash properties,
solid fuel supply systems
Analysis methods of liquid fuels,
liquid fuel supply systems
Analysis methods of gaseous fuels,
gaseous fuel supply systems
 Fuel classification
State of matter Fossil Renewable
Solid Coal Biomass:
black, brown, lignite wood, cane, grass, etc.
energy plants & waste materials
Liquid Crude Oil Biomass:
Petrol, kerosene, Vegetable oil & bio-diesel
Diesel Oil Bio-ethanol
Gaseous Natural gas Bio-gas
Digester gas,
pyrolysis-gas from gasification
 Fuel features
Fuels can be delivered, stored and
burned at different power level,
according to energy demands

Fossil Renewable
Energy content High Low
Delivery even for long only for short
distance distance
Storage capacity small large
Circulation of Carbon
 Heating Value
Heating value (calorific value) is the heat released by the fuel when completely
burnt, and may be determined at constant volume or constant pressure,
and flue gas is cooled back to the initial temperature (ambient temperature)

- higher/gross heating/calorific value - assumes that the water vapor in the

products condenses and thus includes the latent
( HHV, Hs) heat of vaporization of the water vapor in the
products.
- lower/net heating/calorific value - does not. contain the latent heat, the water
in flue gas remain in steam form at the initial
( LHV, Hi ) temperature

possible dimensions: MJ/kg, MJ/m3, kWh/kg, kWh/m3

LHV = HHV mw h fg 9 m H 2 h fg
mw = mass of water vapor per unit mass of fuel
hfg = latent heat of vaporization of water vapor / at its partial
pressure in the combustion products [J/kgH2O]
mH2 = mass of original hydrogen per unit mass of fuel.
 Composition of solid fuels, and analysis methods

Original substance Green coal, damp wood, waste in original state

Incombustible, ballast
General composition Combustible
Mineral Moisture, or
matter Water content

Drying at ambient air Air-dry fuel

Free or
Water free fuel Hygroscopic surface
Drying at 105 C moisture moisture,
Combustible Incombustible

Heating at 850 C Coke residue

without air Total moisture,
Volatile matter Water content
Complete combustion Fix
at 850C Carbon Ash
(w)
Result: (fixC) (a)
Proximate analysis

Sulphur Nitrogen Oxygen Hydrogen Total

Ultimate analysis Carbon
(S) (N) (O) (H)
(C)
Properties of solid fuels
 Properties of solid fuels
Energy by Energy by Energy by Energy by
Bulk density
Fuel mass mass volume volume
kg/m3
GJ/tonne kWh/kg MJ/m3 kWh/m3
Wood chips
(Very
dependent on 7-15 2-4 175-350 2,000-3,600 600-1,000
moisture
content)
Log wood
(stacked - air
dry: 20% 15 4.2 300-550 4,500-8,300 1,300-2,300
moisture
content)
Wood (solid -
18-21 5-5.8 450-800 8,100-16,800 2,300-4,600
oven dry)
Wood pellets 18 5 600-700 10,800-12,600 3,000-3,500
Coal (lignite to
20-30 5.6-8.3 800-1,100 16,000-33,000 4,500-9,100
anthracite)
Oil 42 11.7 870 36,500 10,200

Natural gas 54 15 0.7 39 10.8

 Water or moisture content
There are two methods used to calculate the moisture content, Wet Basis and
Dry Basis. The most common method in energy terms is wet basis, whilst
foresters tend to use the dry basis. It is important to note that the two methods
will give a different result for the same piece of wood.

Example
A quantity of wood has a total mass of 10kg. It is dried in an oven so that all water is
removed and then weighed. Its new mass is 8kg. The moisture content is calculated as:

WET BASIS
mass of water (2kg )
moisture content ( MC ) = = 20%
mass of wet wood (10kg )
DRY BASIS
mass of water (2kg )
moisture content ( MC ) = = 25%
mass of dry wood (8kg )
Relationship between water content
and calorific value of wood
 Wood as renewable
Fuel Advantages
Wood chips
Easy to produce locally from woodland
thinnings etc.

Much cheaper fuel costs.

Expenditure on wood fuel can benefit the
immediate local economy.
Wood
User input similar to conventional heating
pellets installations

Cheaper capital costs due to the drier and
more homogeneous nature of the fuel

Denser fuel means reduced storage space
and easier transport

Suitable for very small appliances
Logs
Logs can be stored and transported
conveniently when stacked

Ease of air passage through a log pile
allows good drying

Can be easily produced on site or very
locally
Disadvantages

Can require greater user input, depending
upon the quality of the fuel

System has a higher capital cost since wood
chips require larger storage capacity and
more robust fuel handling equipment

Need the services of a specialised chipper

Only suitable for larger appliances i.e. >25
kW

More expensive fuel costs

Supply is less likely to be localised and so
does not provide local economic impacts

Less suitable for automated systems
(although some do exist)

Large storage space required to allow 1 2
years for seasoning
Wood processing and woodchips collection
Pellet manufacturing from sawdust
 Ash
Fuel contains incombustible parts,
known as ash,
mainly potassium (K), sodium (Na),
phosphorous (P), calcium (Ca),
silicon (Si).
Halogen content (Cl) and (F) also important
from environmental and corrosion viewpoint
Waste materials can contain heavy metals and
other pollutants
Ash softening and melting properties are very
important for combustion management
Bunte-Baum test
Bunte-Baum test result
Leitz type heated microscope
 Leitz type heated microscope results

Original IDT SOT HT FT

(initial deformation) (softening) (hemispherical) (fluid)
 Composition of solid fuels
Proximate analysis is used for combustion
behavior evaluation
Ultimate analysis is used for combustion
(stoichiometric) calculations
Ash softening properties are important from
combustion chamber operation
Pollutants can be either neutral from combustion
viewpoint, (e.g. heavy metals)
or can take part in reaction (e.g. Cl to HCl)
but in both case are important from emission
viewpoint
 Fuel storage and supply system
Fuel size and size distribution
- from combustion viewpoint size distribution
has to be in narrow range
- but milling or pressing has certain energy
demand
and increases fuel cost
Task so this system is to prepare and feed fuel for
reaction and for feeding into the combustion
chamber.
Furthermore fuel has to be available when it is
needed, so storage or utility connection is also
included in this system.
In case preparation needs heat it is generally
supplied from the boiler, which is called self
consumption.
 Fuel storage example

Photo: Beacon Stoves

The log store should allow for plenty of air flow but should protect the logs from the rain
 Wood pellet storage and feeding

Bagged wood pellets Pellet store using partition walls and auger

Pellet store and vacuum pellet feed Pre-fabricated silo and auger
 Wood chip storage and feeding

Rotary stirrer facilitates removal of chips Wood chip bunker showing stirrer and
screw conveyor

Covered area for drying and storing large A ramp allows wood chips to be tipped
quantities of wood chips into the store
Wood chip storage and feeding
Wood chip
storage and
feeding
Wood chip
storage and
feeding
base plan
 Agricultural materials - straw
Form Bulk density Part mass
Kg/m3 Kg

Original 40-60 -
Small bale 70-120 8-25
Big round bale 60-120 300-400
Big quadrate bale 60-160 200-600
Briquett-pellet 300-600 0,02-0,3
Storage of bales
Straw-bale storage and feeding
Agricultural-pellet and briquette
 Proximate analysis data of
agricultural materials
Material water ash Volatile fix LHV of
[%] [%] matter carbon water
[%] [%] free
material
[MJ/kg]

Soy straw 7.45 4.25 66.2 22.1 17.0

Corn-stalk 8.9 3.9 71.4 15.8 17.6
Wheat straw 7.6 7.0 71.9 13.5 17.7
Energy grass 12.5 5.9 65.4 16.2 16.3
Sunflower stalk 6.46 11.83 60.8 21.2 13.6
Grapevine 8.1 1.95 61.5 28.45 18.0
Ultimate analysis data of agricultural materials
Material C H O N Ash Cl S
[%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%]

Haver straw 46.32 4.90 38.66 0.69 7.82 1.5 0.11

Wheat straw 46.88 6.12 41.04 0.77 4.70 0.38 0.11

Energy 45.86 5.66 40.48 0.88 6.74 0.27 0.11

grass
Miscanthus 48.5 5.45 42.16 0.51 3.12 0.22 0.045

Sunflower 46.0 6.10 39.6 1.1 7.00 0.20 -

husk
 Ash-melting behavior of different materials

IDT SOT HT FT
Unit C C C C
Acacia wood 1180 1200 1220 1220
Poplar wood 1175 1205 1230 1250
Willow wood 1210 1225 1250 1275
Wheat straw 848 956 1107 1241
Intensive grass 775 935 990 1055
Sewage sludge 1120 1180 1290 1320
Municipal Solid Waste (WSW)
Current status at MSW treatment in EU
 MSW categories for incineration
Original: MSW can be incinerated as it is
without any or with slight pre-selection
(LHV = 5 9 MJ/kg)
With taking out of incombustibles, chopping and baling
RDF: Refuse Derived Fuel is a non specified waste.
Its quality and environmental features
are not analysed using acknowledged methods.
SRF: Solid Recovered Fuel is a fuel derived from
non-hazardous waste produced in accordance
with the requirements of the European standards
for SRF - EN15359
Classification of SRF acc. EN 15359
 SRF
example
Useful link: http://www.ecn.nl/phyllis2/
 Properties of liquid fuels
Ultimate analysis is used for composition
investigation (similarly to solid fuels)
Heating value is used for energy content
evaluation (similarly to solid fuels)
Liquid fuel can not be burnt in liquid form
it has to be in gaseous form,
so it has to be evaporated
Liquid fuels can be stored in tanks
Liquid fuels can be delivered via pipelines
by means of appropriate pump
 Properties of liquid fuels
Point of solidification is understood as the temperature at
which the product no longer flows upon the effect of the
gravitational force. Its value is significant first of all in
respect of transportation.
Flash point is the temperature at which as much vapor
generates from the liquid fuel under atmospheric pressure
that, mixed with the ambient air, upon approach of flame it
flashes over the whole oil surface. This value is used also
for characterization of explosion and fire protection.
Firing point is the temperature at which vaporization of the
liquid is of such extent, that with the approach of the flame
for a short time it is ignited and the burning will be
constant on the surface maintaining for at least 5 s.
The firing point is characteristic to the inflammability of
the fuel.
Conradson number The liquid fuel is heated and vaporized
in an air-tight vessel. The retained coke part related to the
initial amount of oil gives the Conradson number. The
coking liability is an important characteristic.
 Inflammability Classification
There are 5 categories in inflammability classification
These are:
A - Increased danger of inflammability and explosion
B - Danger of inflammability and explosion
C - Danger of inflammability
D Moderate danger of inflammability
E Not flammable
A - Increased danger of inflammability and explosion

In case closed cup flash point is less than 21C

Operation temperature is greater or equal with
open cap flash point and greater than Top >35C
In case lean limit concentration of flammability
of vapor or gas is maximum10%
 B - Danger of inflammability and explosion

In case a dust can form explosive mixture with air

In case closed cup flash point is greater than 21C,
open cup flash point is maximum 55C
Or operation temperature is less than open cap
flash point but greater than open cap flash point
20C and Top >35C
In case lean limit concentration of flammability of
vapor or gas is greater than 10%
 C - Danger of inflammability

Solid material where flammability temperature is

maximum 300C
Liquid fuels having open cup flash point above
55C, but not greater than 150C
Or operation temperature is less than open cap
flash point 20C but greater than open cap flash
point 50C and Top >35C
In case of non flammable gas, but that is feeding
the combustion except for air
 D Moderate danger of inflammability

Solid material where flammability temperature is greater

than 300C
Liquid fuels having open cup flash point greater than
150C
Or operation temperature is less than
open cap flash point 50C and Top >35C
Dispersion mixture where flammable content is greater
than 25% and water content is less than 50% furthermore
flash point can not be determined by standardised methods
Properties of liquid fuels
 Properties of liquid fuels
Fuel Oil Fuel Oil S Fuel Oil Animal
EL SA Fat
Composition [% w/w]

C Carbon 86.3 85.2 86.6 76.56

H Hydrogen 13.4 11.1 11.0 12,47
S Sulphur 0.3 2.3 1.0 0.1
O Oxygen - 1.0 1.0 10.16
N Nitrogen - 0.3 0.3 0.35
w water - 0.1 0.1 0.356
Density at 15C [kg/l] 0.84 0.95 0.96 0.916
Pour point [C] -6 50 50 28
Flash point [C] 70 120 120 202
 Properties of liquid fuels
Fuel Oil Fuel Oil Fuel Oil Animal
EL S SA Fat
Air requirement [m3/kg] 11.22 10.65 10.79 9.81
Dry fluegas volume [m3/kg] 10.46 10.04 10.16 9.09

Wet fluegas volume [m3/kg] 11.86 11.17 11.33 10.48

Water content in fluegas [kg/kg] 1.20 0.97 1.00 1.12
CO2max [% V/V] 15.31 16.00 16.02 15.71
CO2 emission [kg/kWh] 0.27 0.28 0.28 0 (0.257)

Lower Heating Value [MJ/kg] 42.82 40.38 40.94 39.3

Higher Heating Value [MJ/kg] 45.76 42.76 43.38 42.1
Viscosity
variation
of liquid
fuels
 Characteristic data Ethanol Petrol Isooctane Diesel oil
Formula CH3CH2OH C4 -C12 C8H18 C15H28
Molar mass 46,07 110(average) 114,23 208
Ultimate analysis, %, C 52,14 83-88 84,12 86,1
H 13,13 12-14,3 15,88 13,9
O 34,73 0-2,7 0 0
Density, g/cm3 0,7893 0,720-0,780 0,6919 0,84
Sulphur content, ppm <1 <150 0 <350
Comparis Boiling temperature, C 78,5 25-220 99,2 180-360
on Evaporation heat, 20C, MJ/kg 0,839 0,349 0,314 0,256
of bio- Evaporation heat, 20C, MJ/dm3 0,662 0,251 0,217 -
ethanol Flammability point, C 12,8 -43 (-) -39 4 70
with fossil Spontaneous ignition
423 495 447 250
temperature, C
fuels
Flammability range
4,3-19,0 1,4-7,6 1,1-6,0 1,4-7,6
in air, V/ V %
Higher heating value, MJ/kg 29,8 47,2 47,8 45,8
Lower heating value, MJ/kg 26,7 43 43,5 42,7
Stoichiometric air to fuel ratio
8,97 14,7 15,07 14,6
mass / mass
Azeotrop water content, % 4,4 - - -
Research octane number 111 88-98 100 -
Motor octane number 92 80-88 100 -
Cetane number 8 8-14 10 45-55
Vapor pressure, 38C, kPa 16 40-90 70 -
CO2 emission, g/MJ 71,5 71 - 72 71,8 74,2
Liquid fuel storage conditions
 Properties of gaseous fuels
Gaseous fuels can be handled as ideal gas mixture
of different gas components
Molecule analysis is used for composition
investigation (instead of ultimate analysis)
Heating value is used for energy content
evaluation (similarly to solid and liquid fuels)
but it is generally given by volume
Gaseous fuels can be stored in tanks
either in gaseous form under high pressure
or in liquefied form under medium pressure
Gaseous fuels can be delivered via pipelines by
means of pressure difference
 Important parameters of gaseous fuels
Relative density: d = gas/air [-]
(important e.g. from explosion safety viewpoints)
Ranges:
d < 0.8 - light gas (e.g. natural gas CH4)
0.8 < d < 1.2 - medium category (e.g. CO)
1.2 < d - heavy gas (e.g. LPG - propane-bhutane)

Wobbe index
(for assessment of gas exchange)

Extended Wobbe index

where: Hs - HHV higher heating value of the gas

d - relative density
p pressure drop at a fuel nozzle
 Flammability limits
Flammability limits, also called flammable limits, give the
proportion of combustible gases in a mixture, between which
limits this mixture is flammable.
LFL The lower flammable limit describes the leanest mixture
that is still flammable, i.e. the mixture with the smallest fraction
of combustible gas,
UFL The upper flammable limit gives the richest flammable
mixture.
Increasing the fraction of inert gases in a mixture raises the LFL
and decreases UFL.
Flammability limits of mixtures of several combustible gases
can be calculated using Le Chatelier's mixing rule for
combustible volume fractions xi:
(and similar for UFLmix)
Gas Mixtures Having High Inert Content
Generated from Biomass
Digester gas from anaerob fermentation:
Main part: CH4 + CO2
Pollutants: H2S, CO, H2O, particulates
Heating value: 18 - 30 MJ/m3
Gasification or pyrolysis gas:
Main part: CH4+CO+H2 + CO2+ N2+H2O
Pollutants: H2S, tar, particulates, coke
Heating value: 5 - 20 MJ/m3
Biomass conversion types
 Summary
You are already familiar with:
Properties of different fuels from combustion
viewpoint
Classification of fuels
Definition of lower and higher heating value
Analysis methods of solid fuels, combustible and
ash properties, solid fuel supply systems
Properties of liquid fuels,
liquid fuel supply systems
Properties of gaseous fuels,
gaseous fuel supply systems
Thank You for Your Attention !