Earth Science STEM

UNIT II. EARTH MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

MINERAL RESOURCES

Learning Objectives:
The learners will be able to describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and
processed for human use
cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the
exploitation, extraction, and use of mineral resources

Ores and Minerals

Ores
naturally occurring materials that can be profitably mined
can be mineral or rock or metallic or non-metallic, depending on the economic
requirement
A deposit is considered a potential ore body if its localized abundance is greater
than its average abundance or distribution on Earths crust.
A rock or a mineral is considered an ore based on:
1. Overall chemical composition
2. Percentage or extractable resource with respect to its total volume
3. Market value of the resource

Locating Ores

Ore bodies are unevenly distributed throughout Earths crust.

Potential ore bodies are located by recognizing that a geologic process or
combination of processes can produce a localized enrichment of one or more
minerals, and that these processes only happen in particular types of
environments.

Geologic Processes
1. Hydrothermal fluid circulation
- The most common type of ore mineral deposition process
- Hydrothermal fluids form when groundwater or seawater is heated by
magma or when hot, aqueous solutions are expelled from a cooling
plutonic body.
- This produces veins that host metals like gold, silver, and copper
2. Metamorphic processes
- Leads to the alteration and recrystallization of minerals and aids the
formation and localization of economically-iportant materials like
graphite, marble, and asbestos
3. Magmatic processes
- Create ore minerals which are concentrated due to their premature
recrystallization and separation from magma.
4. A special type of magma, called kimberlite magma, originates deep within the
mantle and is the source of diamonds, which only crystallize at depths greater
than 150 km.
5. Chemical sedimentary processes
- Form evaporate deposits from the precipitation of saltwater minerals
(halite, gypsum, limestone) and evaporation of lake water (anhydrite)
6. Action of ocean waves or currents in flowing surface water
- tend to take sediments along
- If the wave action and strength is constant, it causes a selective sifting
effect that removes sediments and leaves behind those that are heavier
in what we called placer deposits.

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-Heavy minerals, such as gold, platinum, zircon, and diamonds are

concentrated in this manner
7. Chemical weathering
- Chemical changes in their mineral components that result in their
alteration into other minerals and into the formation of residual ore
deposits.
- This types of ores are common in tropical areas where the climate is
conducive to their formation
- Many of the altered materials are economically important such as laterite,
which is an important ore of iron, nickel, and/or aluminum.

Mining Ores

Mining refers to a set of processes through which useful resources are withdrawn from
a stock of any nonrenewable resource.

Mining ores is an intensive and sophisticated process that variesbased on the mineral
depending on whether they are excavated, stripped, or brought via tunnels and shafts.

Steps Done During Mining

1. Prospecting or exploration looking for the ore bodya deposit that can yield a
large amount of the required ore mineral.
a. Project Design: This is the initial stage in formulating a project. This involves
review of all available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.),
government requirements in acquiring the project, review of social,
environmental, political and economic acceptability of the project, and
budget and organization proposals.
b. Field Exploration: This stage involves physical activities in the selected project
area. This can be subdivided into three phases:
Regional Reconnaissance:The main objective is to identify targets or
interesting mineralized zones covering a relatively large area
(regional). In general, the activities involve regional surface
investigation and interpretation.
Detailed Exploration: This involves more detailed surface and
subsurface activities with the objective of finding and delineating
targets or mineralized zones.
Prospect Evaluation: The main objective is to assess market profitability
by (1) extensive resource, geotechnical and engineering drilling (2)
metallurgical testing and (3) environmental and societal cost
assessment.
Pre-production Feasibility Study: The feasibility study determines and
validates the accuracy of all data and information collected from the
different stages. The purpose is for independent assessors to satisfy
interested investors to raise funds and bring the project into
production.

2. Drilling a small part of the ore is extracted to determine the resulting ore, ores
quality, and the amount of ore minerals (grade)
3. Modeling determining the ores size, shape, and grade distribution throughout
the deposit to apply appropriate mining methods, blast and dig pattern designs,
safety precautions, and efficiency and processing methods
4. Identifying and assessing the potential impacts consideration on the social and
environmental aspects and finding ways of mitigating any consequence of the
mining operation with the purpose of bringing the area back as close to its
original state as possible
5. Designing and constructing the mine Engineers and scientists work hand in
hand to create the appropriate mine and operational design, and proceeds

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with the construction once all the necessary permits are required from the
government and local communities
6. Ore extraction high grade ores are separated from the rest of the deposit
7. Milling the ore is crushed and concentrated; waste materials (tailings) are
released
The Milling Process
the materials extracted or mined" are rocks composed of both ore and
waste material
The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral (e.g. metal) separation
and recovery.
Recovering the minerals from the oreand waste materials can involve one or
more processes where in the separation is usually done in a mill.
Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction
followed by grinding where the rocks are pulverized.

Milling or Recovery Methods or Processes

a. Heavy media separation: The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where
the heavier/denser minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals.
This is commonly used to separate chalcopyrite from quartz before the
refining processes of extracting copper.

b. Magnetic separation: If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is

separated from the waste materials using a powerful magnet.

c. Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurrywhere
some minerals and metals based on physical and chemical properties may
either sink to the bottom or may stick to the bubbles and rise to the topthus
separating the minerals and metals from the waste.

d. Cyanide heap leaching: This method used for low-grade gold ore where the
crushed rock is placed on a leach pile where cyanide solution is sprayed or
dripped on top of the pile. As the leach solution percolates down through the
rocks, the gold is dissolved into the solution. The solution is processed further to
extract the gold.

The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or sent to a tailings
pond, while the metals are sent for further processing

8. Mine site decommissioning closure of the depleted mine, the mine site is
cleaned up and reclaimed or rehabilitated for other purposes

Three Possible Extraction Methods

1. Sand and gravel extraction very little waste rock is left behind the milling
process, as their types of deposits are not economically viable unless the ore is of
high grade
2. Extraction from buried ore bodies huge quantities of rock often needs to be
removed and discarded so that a relatively small amount of ore can be
recovered
3. Ore Processing producing ore minerals from ores through crushing, separating,
and purifying

Mining Method

1. Surface Mining
- Utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to Earths surface
- Different types include open pit mining, quarrying, placer mining and strip mining.

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2. Underground Mining
- Utilized to extract ore minerals from the ore body is that is deep under the Earths
surface

Environmental Impacts

Irresponsible mining: can cause flooding, erosion, subsidence, water and air pollution,
damage to wildlife and habitat

Measures to Prevent or Mitigate the Harmful Effects of Irresponsible mining

Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil

reintroduction of flora and fauna
neutralizing acidic waters
backfilling and sealing of abandoned underground mines
stabilizing the slope of impacted area to reduce erosion

Role of the government (environmental laws) and other organizations in the

implementation of environmental programs

1. Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB

- the primary government agency under the DENR that is responsible for the
sustainable exploration, development, utilization and conservation of all
mineral resources in public and private lands within the territory and
exclusive economic zone of the Republic of the Philippines
2. Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)
- To protect, restore and enhance environmental quality towards good
public health, environmental integrity and economic viability
3. Philippine Mine Safety and Environment Association (PMSEA)
- the country's forerunner in the promotion of occupational safety and
health, sound environmental management and social responsibility in the
minerals industry
4. Department of Environment and Natural resources
- the primary agency responsible for the conservation, management,
development, and proper use of the countrys environment and natural
resources, specifically forest and grazing lands, mineral resources,
including those in reservation and watershed areas, and lands of the
public domain, as well as the licensing and regulation of all natural
resources as may be provided for by law in order to ensure equitable
sharing of the benefits derived therefrom for the welfare of the present
and future generations of Filipinos

References:
Commission on Higher Education Teaching Guide on Earth Science, 2015
Jose Tolentino Olivar II, Raymond S. Rodolfo, & Hillel B. Cabria (2016). Exploring Life
Through Science Series. Earth Science.
http://r2.denr.gov.ph/index.php/88-line-bureaus/88-mines-and-geosciences-bureau
http://emb.gov.ph/
http://www.mgb.gov.ph/
https://www.denr.gov.ph/about-us/mission-vision.html

Prepared by: Trisha T. Tan