Acoustic logging

Petroleum applications of acoustic-wave-propagation theory and physics include both:

Surface-geophysical methods
Borehole-geophysical methods

Acoustic logging is a subset of borehole-geophysical acoustic techniques.

Historically, the primary and the most routine uses of acoustic logs in reservoir engineering have been:

Porosity determination (http://petrowiki.org/Porosity_evaluation_with_acoustic_logging)

Identification of gas-bearing intervals (http://petrowiki.org/Fluid_identification_and_characterization)
Cement evaluation (http://petrowiki.org/Cement_bond_logs)

Continuing developments in tool hardware and in interpretation techniques have expanded the utility of these logs in formation evaluation and completion (fracture) design and
evaluation.

Contents
1 Overview (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#Overview)
2 Geophysical applications (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#Geophysical_applications)
3 Near-well imaging (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#Near-well_imaging)
4 Acoustic theory and wave propagation (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#Acoustic_theory_and_wave_propagation)
4.1 Compressional waves (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#Compressional_waves)
4.2 Shear and borehole flexural waves (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#Shear_and_borehole_flexural_waves)
4.3 Stoneley waves (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#Stoneley_waves)
5 References (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#References)
6 Noteworthy papers in OnePetro (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#Noteworthy_papers_in_OnePetro)
7 External links (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#External_links)
8 See also (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#See_also)

Overview
A virtual explosion in the volume of acoustic research conducted over the past 20 years has resulted in significant advances in the fundamental understanding of downhole acoustic
measurements. These advances, in turn, have greatly influenced practical logging technology by allowing logging-tool designs (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging_tools) to be
optimized for specific applications.[1] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r1-1)

Acoustic-wave data-acquisition methods cover a broad range of scales from millimeters to hundreds of meters (Fig. 1[2] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r2-2)). Table 1
lists other common surface- and borehole-geophysical methods.

(http://petrowiki.org/File%3AVol5_Page_0169_Image_0001.png)
(http://petrowiki.org/File%3AVol5_Page_0168_Image_0001.png)

Fig. 1 Diagram showing the maximum and Table 1

minimum ranges vs. the resolution for various
acoustic methods.[2]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r2-2)
Acoustic logging includes the sonic and ultrasonic
ranges (courtesy of SPE).

Borehole acoustic-logging measurements are used in a wide variety of geophysical, geological, and engineering applications and play an important role in the following undertakings
(Table 2):

Evaluating reservoirs
Reducing exploration and production risks
Selecting well locations
Designing completions
Increasing hydrocarbon recovery
 (http://petrowiki.org/File%3AVol5_Page_0169_Image_0002.png)

Table 2

Modern logging tools (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging_tools) include conventional borehole-compensated (BHC) monopole devices as well as the newer array devicesboth
monopole and multipole (monopole/dipole)and logging-while-drilling (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging_while_drilling) (LWD) acoustic services. These logging tools provide
acoustic measurements in all borehole mud types (but not in air- or foam-filled boreholes) in vertical, deviated, and horizontal wells, in both open and cased hole. They are
combinable with other logging devices and are available in a variety of sizes to accommodate a range of borehole and casing diameters. Specialized tool designs are used for cement
and casing evaluation (http://petrowiki.org/Cement_bond_logs) and borehole imaging.

Geophysical applications
The higher operating frequency of acoustic-logging tools and the smaller TR distances allows for higher-quality velocity data and finer vertical resolution than surface reflection
techniques. Acoustic-velocity logs were originally developed for calibrating surface seismic velocities and reflectors. Acoustic-log interval travel time or transit time, t, can be
summed, i.e., integrated, over the entire logged interval to provide the equivalent of seismic one-way time which is compared to borehole seismic surveys and reflection seismic two-
way time.

Acoustic-log data are commonly calibrated using checkshot (velocity) or vertical seismic profile (http://petrowiki.org/Seismic_profiling) (VSP) surveys prior to use in geophysical
applications. Data from these surveys, which use downhole receivers and surface acoustic sources, are used to adjust the log data for drift and borehole conditions and result in
improved time-depth correlation. Acoustic-log data are combined with density-log data, to generate an impedance log that in turn is used to produce a synthetic seismogram.
Synthetic seismograms are artificial seismic records that tie seismic time to log depth and are also used to match well-log quantities to seismic attributes for distinguishing primary
seismic events (geologic structure and stratigraphy). It is possible, however, that a synthetic seismogram may not provide a very good match to the seismic field data. Disagreements
commonly result from the differences scale and acquisition physics used in seismic and well-log measurement; for example[3] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r3-3)[4]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r4-4)[5] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r5-5)[6] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r6-6)[7]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r7-7):

Operational frequency (wavelength)

Borehole condition
Angle of measurement (particularly in the presence of anisotropy)

Acoustic-log data provide a fundamental and essential element of modern seismic reservoir characterization.[8] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r8-8) See fundamentals of
geophysics (http://petrowiki.org/Geophysics) for more information on the determination and use of these types of analyses.

Near-well imaging
Acoustic data acquired using modern array tools can provide high-resolution (0.5 m), microscale "seismic" 2D and 3D images of structural features in the near-borehole region (10 to
15 m). Conventional seismic-processing techniques, including filtering and migration, are used to extract compressional and shear reflections from the acoustic data. The reflections
are then used to image geological features near the borehole. This technique allows the imaging of (Fig. 2)[9] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r9-9)[10]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r10-10)[11] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r11-11)[12] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r12-12)[13]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r13-13)[14] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r14-14)[15] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r15-15)[16]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r16-16)[17] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r17-17):

Bed boundaries
Thin beds (stringers)
Fractures
Faults in openhole and cased wells
 (http://petrowiki.org/File%3AVol5_Page_0209_Image_0002.png)

Fig. 2 Near-well acoustic image of a fractured

reservoir using direct (compressional) (right
panel) and converted (shear) (left panel) acoustic
modes. The fractures indicated in the converted
mode data are more apparent than in the direct
data and also correlate better with fractures seen
on the televiewer image[2]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r2-2) (not
shown) (courtesy of SPE).

Acoustic theory and wave propagation

The principles of borehole acoustic logging (and surface seismic methods) are based on the theory of wave propagation (http://petrowiki.org/Seismic_wave_propagation) in an elastic
medium, as detailed in several sources[18] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r18-18)[19] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r19-19)[20]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r20-20)[13] (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r13-13). The oscillating motion generated by a sound source (transducer) in an elastic
medium (rock formation) is called an elastic wave or acoustic wave (also called head or body waves). Wave theory predicts how an acoustic signal propagates through the borehole
and formation. Snells law explains how the acoustic signal behaves at the velocity boundary separating the borehole and the formation, that is, how it is transmitted into the
formation and back to the receivers. Elasticity is the property of matter that causes it to resist deformation in volume or shape. It is the elastic nature of rock formations that permits
wave propagation. Acoustic waves have four measurable properties:

Velocity (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_velocity_dispersion_and_attenuation)
Amplitude
Amplitude attenuation
Frequency

Acoustic logging tools (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging_tools) are designed to measure one or more of these properties, with velocity (slowness) being the most common.

The waveform recorded at the logging tools receivers is a composite signal containing different energy modes, each with a different frequency, velocity, and amplitude. For borehole
logging, the modes of primary interest (Fig. 3) are, in order of arrival:

Compressional
Shear
Stoneley (tube) waves

The waveform is recorded as acoustic amplitude as a function of time.

(http://petrowiki.org/File%3AVol5_Page_0170_Image_0001.png)

Fig. 3 Generalized acoustic waveform showing

the wave signature of different energy modes
(courtesy of Baker Atlas).

These waves are transmitted through the medium some distance from the origin of displacement. The particles of the medium do not travel with the wave, but only vibrate around
their mean central position. Acoustic waves are classified according to the direction of particle displacement with respect to the direction of wave propagation as either:

Longitudinal (i.e., particle displacement is parallel to the direction of propagation)

Transverse (i.e., direction of particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction of propagation)

In acoustic logging:

The longitudinal wave is known as the compressional wave

The transverse wave is known as the shear wave
The presence of the borehole excites two additional acoustic energy modes, called guided waves:

Normal (pseudo-Rayleigh)
Tube (Stoneley) waves

Acoustic-wave velocity is controlled by a number of factors:

Lithology (mineralogy) (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_types)

Cementation
Clay content
Texture
Porosity (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_acoustic_velocities_and_porosity)
Pore-fluid composition and saturation
Overburden-and pore-fluid pressure (stress) (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_acoustic_velocities_and_in-situ_stress)
Temperature (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_acoustic_velocities_and_temperature)

The rocks mechanical properties, elastic dynamics, and density (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_density_and_porosity) are a constant for a particular homogeneous and isotropic material.
Acoustic-wave velocity can be related to rock elastic properties through three constants of:

Proportionality
Elastic moduli (e.g., Youngs, shear, and bulk)
Poissons ratio

This serves as the basis for mechanical-property evaluation by acoustic logs. In reality, most petroleum reservoirs contain varying pore sizes, pore fill (e.g., clays), fractures, etc. and
consequently, are neither truly isotropic nor homogeneous. Furthermore, in fluid-saturated rocks, these acoustic properties also depend on the type and volume of fluids present.

Compressional waves

Compressional (P, primary, or pressure) waves are longitudinal waves that are transmitted through an elastic formation by compression or pressure. Particle motion is parallel to the
direction of wave propagation (Fig. 4). They can travel through solids, liquids, and gases and are the fastest wave typethey represent the acoustic first arrival. Of all acoustic wave
types, they are the most reliable because they are least affected by:

Faults
Unconsolidated formations
Borehole fluids

The wave is transmitted by both the rock matrix (i.e., the framework) and the fluid present in the pore throats. A compression, together with an adjacent rarefaction preceding or
following it, constitutes a complete cycle. The distance between complete cycles is called the wave length and the number of cycles propagating through a point in the medium per
unit time is the frequency. The velocity of elastic-wave propagation in an isotropic homogeneous medium can be derived from a combination of the theory of elasticity with Newtons
law of motion. Compressional-wave velocity (or travel time) is a function of the density and elasticity of the medium and is a constant for a given material.

(http://petrowiki.org/File%3AVol5_Page_0171_Image_0001.png)

Fig. 4 Direction of particle motion in

compressional and shear waves and wave motion
generated by monopole and dipole transmitters
(courtesy of Baker Atlas).

Shear and borehole flexural waves

Shear (S, secondary) waves are transverse waves that are transmitted by lateral displacement of particles in a rigid elastic formation. Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction
of motion (Fig. 4). Normally, shear waves are the second arrival in an acoustic wave train. In most reservoir rocks, shear waves generally have higher amplitudes than compressional
waves but lower velocities, by as much 40 to 50%. There are two types of borehole shear wavesdirect and indirect, also known as refracted or induced. Indirect shear waves are
induced in a formation through a process known as mode conversion in which some of the compressional energy is transferred from the borehole fluid into the rock formation.
Monopole transmitters generate these indirect shear waves while dipole transmitters generate direct shear waves by inducing a flexural (asymmetric mode) in the borehole. Shear-
wave propagation requires a medium that has shear strength (rigidity). Consequently, shear waves can only travel in solids, not in liquids or gas. In liquids and gas, the shear head-
wave generated within the formation is converted into a compressional wave and propagated back across the borehole fluid to the acoustic receivers as a later-arriving compressional
wave.

Unconsolidated or poorly consolidated sandstones ("soft" or "slow" rocks) are less rigid and more compressible than well-consolidated ("hard" or "fast") rocks. When the formation
shear-wave velocity is less than the acoustic velocity of the borehole fluid (Vs < Vf), a rock formation is called "slow." There is no refracted shear-wave from monopole devices in
slow formations and low-frequency dipole transmission and reception is required to adequately detect low-frequency flexural arrivals for the shear-wave slowness determination.
However, if a monopole-array tool is used in these conditions, a shear-wave slowness can be estimated from Stoneley-wave velocity dispersion.[21]
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r21-21) In very slow formations, where V < V , special processing may be required to extract the formation compressional signal.[22]
c f
(http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_note-r22-22)
Flexural-wave velocity varies with frequencya phenomenon called dispersion. In contrast, the compressional and shear headwaves generated by monopole sources are generally not
dispersive. At very low frequencies, the flexural wave travels at the formation shear velocity. This dispersion effect diminishes as the wavelength of the flexural-wave increases and is
generally minimal when the wavelength is at least three times the borehole diameter. Fast formations exhibit a center frequency slightly greater than 3 kHz, while slow formations
exhibit a center frequency of 1 kHz, or less. The received frequency spectrum of a dipole array is a function of:

Transmitter frequency
Rock properties
Borehole size

Modern dipole transmitters are broadband transmitters, i.e., they operate over a range of frequencies, to account for dispersion and to accommodate different formation types.

Stoneley waves

Stoneley (tube) waves are high-amplitude guided waves that are generated by a radial (symmetric) flexing of the borehole as the acoustic energy passes from the borehole fluid into
the rock formation. They propagate at low frequencies along the fluid-rock interface at the borehole wall; hence, they are sensitive to the rock properties adjacent to the borehole wall.
They are the slowest acoustic mode. They can be measured in both open and cased boreholes, but in cased holes Stoneley-wave features are primarily controlled by the casing
rigidity. Similarly to shear waves, Stoneley waves are also dispersive; i.e., wave velocity varies with frequencythe amount of dispersion is related to formation rock properties.
However, Stoneley waves are notable for several special properties:

There is no cut-off frequency

Dispersion is very mild
For all frequencies, Stoneley-wave velocity is less than fluid velocity
Group velocity nearly equals phase velocity over the frequency range

All acoustic waves undergo attenuation, a reduction in signal amplitude away from the source. For logging devices this means radially away from the borehole wall. Signal
attenuation (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_velocity_dispersion_and_attenuation) results from the geometric spread of energy through:

Reflection
Refraction
Scattering
Absorption by the medium through which the acoustic energy travels

Attenuation, usually expressed in dB/ft, is characteristic of different materials and increases with frequency of the acoustic wave. Generally, attenuation is large in slow formations
and very small to negligible in fast formations. Because of these features, Stoneley waves are used to identify acoustic leakage away from the borehole that may be caused by
formation permeability or the presence of fractures.

References
1. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r1_1-0) Cheng, C.H., Paillet, F.L., and Pennington, W.D. 1992. Acoustic-Waveform Logging--Advances In Theory and
Application. The Log Analyst 33 (3): 239. SPWLA-1992-v33n3a2.
2. 2.0 (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r2_2-0) 2.1 (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r2_2-1) 2.2 (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r2_2-2) Coates, R., Kane, M.,
Chang, C. et al. 2000. Single-well Sonic Imaging: High-Definition Reservoir Cross-sections from Horizontal Wells. Presented at the SPE/CIM International Conference on
Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 6-8 November 2000. SPE-65457-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/65457-MS (http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/65457-MS)
3. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r3_3-0) Thomas, D.H. 1978. Seismic Applications of Sonic Logs. The Log Analyst 19 (1): 2332.
4. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r4_4-0) Liner, C.L. Interpreting Seismic Data. 2000. Exploring for Oil and Gas Traps, Treatise of Petroleum Geology,
Handbook of Petroleum Geology E.A. Beaumont, and N.H. Foster eds., Chap. 12, 12-131217. Tulsa, Oklahoma: AAPG.
5. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r5_5-0) Bork, J. and Wood, L.C. 2001. Seismic Interpretation of Sonic Logs, paper INT 1.4. Expanded Abstracts, 2001
Annual Meeting Technical Program, SEG, 510513.
6. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r6_6-0) Box, R., and Lowrey, P. 2003. Reconciling Sonic Logs with Check-Shot Surveys; Stretching Synthetic Seismograms.
The Leading Edge 22 (6): 510517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1587672 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1587672)
7. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r7_7-0) White, R.E. 2003. Tying Well-Log Synthetic Seismograms to Seismic Data: The Key Factors, paper W-3.7. Expanded
Abstracts, 2003 Annual Meeting Technical Program, SEG, 24492452.
8. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r8_8-0) Walls, J., Dvorkin, J., and Carr, M. 2004. Well Logs and Rock Physics in Seismic Reservoir Characterization.
Presented at the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, 3-6 May. OTC-16921-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/16921-MS (http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/16921-MS)
9. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r9_9-0) Pistre, V. et al. 2005. A Modular Wireline Sonic Tool for Measurements of 3D (Azimuthal, Radial, and Axial)
Formation Acoustic Properties, paper P. Trans., 2005 Annual Logging Symposium, SPWLA, 113.
10. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r10_10-0) Hornby, B. 1989. Imaging of nearborehole structure using fullwaveform sonic data. Geophysics 54 (6): 747757.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1442702 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1442702)
11. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r11_11-0) Hornby, B.E. 1995. Use of Full-Wave Sonic Data to Image Near-Borehole Structural Features. Petroleum
Geoscience 1 (2): 109114.
12. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r12_12-0) Esmeroy, C. et al. 1997. Sonic ImagingA Tool for High-Resolution Reservoir Description, paper BH 2.7.
Expanded Abstracts, 1997 Annual Meeting Technical Program, SEG, 1, 278281.
13. 13.0 (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r13_13-0) 13.1 (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r13_13-1) Tang, X.-M. and Cheng, A. 2004. Quantitative Borehole Acoustic
Methods. In Handbook of Geophysical Exploration, Seismic Exploration, Vol. 24. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press (Elsevier).
14. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r14_14-0) Chabot, L. et al. 2001. Single-Well Imaging Using the Full Waveform of an Acoustic Sonic, paper BH 3.7.
Expanded Abstracts, 2001 Annual Meeting Technical Program, SEG, 420423.
15. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r15_15-0) Yamamoto, H., Watanabe, S., Koelman, J.M.V. et al. 2000. Borehole Acoustic Reflection Survey Experiments in
Horizontal Wells for Accurate Well Positioning. Presented at the SPE/CIM International Conference on Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 6-8 November
2000. SPE-65538-MS. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/65538-MS (http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/65538-MS)
16. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r16_16-0) Tang, X.M. 2004. Imaging Near-Borehole Structure Using Directional Acoustic-Wave Measurement. Geophysics
69 (6): 13781386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1836812 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1836812)
17. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r17_17-0) Zheng, Y., and Tang, X. 2005. Imaging Near-Borehole Structure Using Acoustic Logging Data with Prestack F-K
Migration, paper BG 2. Expanded Abstracts, 2005 Annual Meeting Technical Program, SEG, 360363.
18. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r18_18-0) Paillet, F.L. and Cheng, C.H. 1991. Acoustic Waves in Boreholes, 1264. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
19. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r19_19-0) Mavko, G., Mukerji, T., and Dvorkin, J. 1998. The Rock Physics HandbookTools for Seismic Analysis in Porous
Media, 1-329. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
20. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r20_20-0) Hearst, J.R., Nelson, P.H., and Paillet, F.L. 2000. Acoustic Logging, Well Logging for Physical Properties, second
edition, Chap. 8, 257303. New York City: Wiley and Sons Inc.
21. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r21_21-0) Cheng, C.H. and Toksoz, M.N. 1983. Determination of Shear Wave Velocities in Slow Formation, paper V,
Trans., 1983 Annual Logging Symposium, Soc. of Professional Well Log Analysts (SPWLA) 118.
22. (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging#cite_ref-r22_22-0) Valero, H.P., Peng, L., Yamamoto, M. et al. 2004. Processing of Monopole Compressional In Slow Formation.
Presented at the SEG Annual Meeting, Denver, Colorado, 10-15 October.
Noteworthy papers in OnePetro
Use this section to list papers in OnePetro that a reader who wants to learn more should definitely read

External links
Use this section to provide links to relevant material on websites other than PetroWiki and OnePetro

See also
Acoustic logging tools (http://petrowiki.org/Acoustic_logging_tools)

Advanced acoustic data analysis (http://petrowiki.org/Advanced_acoustic_data_analysis)

Compressional and shear velocities (http://petrowiki.org/Compressional_and_shear_velocities)

Rock acoustic velocities and porosity (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_acoustic_velocities_and_porosity)

Rock acoustic velocities and pressure (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_acoustic_velocities_and_pressure)

Rock acoustic velocities and temperature (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_acoustic_velocities_and_temperature)

Rock acoustic velocities and in-situ stress (http://petrowiki.org/Rock_acoustic_velocities_and_in-situ_stress)

Permeability estimation with Stoneley waves (http://petrowiki.org/Permeability_estimation_with_Stoneley_waves)

PEH:Acoustic_Logging (http://petrowiki.org/PEH%3AAcoustic_Logging)

Category (http://petrowiki.org/Special%3ACategories):
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