5.

14 Vacuum Sensors PI
PE

B. G. LIPTK (1969, 1982, 1995), REVIEWED BY J. WELCH (1995) (Ion or Th)

R. A. GILBERT (2003)

Flow Sheet Symbol

Design Variations: A. Mechanical

A1. Liquid manometers (Section 5.9)
A2. Capacitance diaphragm manometers (Section 5.7)
A3. Quartz helix gauge (Section 5.4)
A4. Spinning ball viscous friction gauge
A5. Molecular momentum gauge
A6. Bourdon gauge
A7. Bellows gauge
B. Thermal
B1. Pirani (thermistor) gauge
B2. Thermocouple, thermopile gauge
B3. Convectron gauge
C. Ionization
C1. Hot cathode (Bayard-Alpert)
C2. Hot cathode (Suhultz-Phelps)
C3. Cold cathode (Philips)
C4. Cold cathode (Redhead)
D. Vacuum gauge calibration
D1. McLeod gauge
D2. Calibration reference tubes

Range: See Figure 5.14a

Inaccuracy: A1. Visibility limited to 0.1 mm

A2. Usually 0.05% or reading at 1 torr, increasing as vacuum rises to about 3% of
4
reading at 10 torr
A3. 0.01% of full scale
A4. Usually 3 to 4% of actual reading
A5. Usually 1 to 3% of actual reading
A6, A7. Limited range (only about 1% of atmosphere)
B1, B2, B3. From 2% of reading at point of calibration to over 10%; reading changes
with composition
C. Reading changes with composition
C1, C2. 10% of reading or less
C3, C4. 10 to 20% of reading

Cost: A1. $150 to $500

A2. $400 to $1000
A3. Over $5000
A4. Sensing head $2000; with controller, $11,000 to $14,000
A6. $50 to $100
A7. $75 to $300
B1. $350 to $700; with controller, $900 to $1100
B2. $300 to $800; with controller, $800 to $1200
B3. $120; tube and indicator, $500; tube, readout, and controller, $1100 to $1500
C1. $150 to $350; tube and controller, $1500
C2. $400

795
2003 by Bla Liptk
796 Pressure Measurement

C3, C4. $200 to $600

D1. $200 to $600
D2. $300

Partial List of Suppliers: Ametek Inc. (A6, A7) (www.ametekapt.com)

Cooke Vacuum Products (B, C) (www.cookevacuum.com)
Dresser Industrial Instruments (A6, A7) (www.dresserinstruments.com)
Dwyer Instruments Inc. (A1) (www.dwyer-inst.com)
Edwards High Vacuum International (B, C, D1) (www.edwards.boc.com)
Fountain Valley Instruments Inc. Televac Div. (hand-held) (www.telvac.com)
Fredericks Co. (www.frederickscom.com)
GFV Associates Inc. (B, C) (www.gfvassociates.com)
Granville-Phillips Co. (B, C) (www.helixtechnology.com)
Hastings (A, B, C, D2) (www.hastings-inst.com)
International Pressure Products Leopold Inc. (A6, A8, B1, B2, C)
Leybold Inficon Inc. (A) (www.inficon.com)
Marshalltown Instruments Inc. (A)
Meriam Instrument, a Scott Fetzer Co. (A5) (www.meriam.com)
MKS Instruments Inc. (A, B, C, D2) (www.mksinst.com)
Moeller Instrument Co. (A5) (www.moellerinstrument.com)
Rosemount Inc. Div. of Emerson (A2) (www.rosemount.com)
Stokes Div. of PermaH (D1)
Uehling Instrument Co. (A5, C1) (www.uehling.com)
Vacuum Technology Inc. (C) (www.vacuumtechnology.com)
Varian, Vacuum Products Div. (B, C) (www.varianinc.com)
Weksler Instruments Corp. (A6, A7) (www.monarchinstrcorp.com)

INTRODUCTION People new to vacuum gauges and vacuum technology

From a working definition perspective, atmospheric pressure
is considered to be 1.01 bar, 14.7 psia, 29.9 in. Hg, 760
mmHg absolute, 760 torr, 760,000 m, or 101,300 Pa. An
obvious impact of this statement is the potential for confusion
due to the various unit options people have when it comes
to reporting pressure. Fortunately, it is not an issue that the
atmospheric pressure at sea level is not one fixed value, nor
is there any deleterious impact of defining 1 atmosphere of
pressurethe pressure at sea level on a clear cold nonstormy
2
day, to be 1,013,250 dynes/cm . Industrial vacuum measure-
ments are expressed in pressure units that reflect a pressure
range and historic preference of the industrial practice. Thus,
it is common for vacuum applications that are near atmo-
spheric pressure to be described in inches of water or mer-
cury. However, it is also expected that the pressure associated
with a semiconductor metalization industrial application that
uses physical vapor deposition be described in Pascals,
microns, or perhaps millitorr units.
The reader should also be prepared to deal with pressure
unit selection variations with respect to the pressure units
that appear on various vacuum pressure gauges. The unfor-
tunate realities when dealing with industrial applications that
require a vacuum environment is that there is no universal
vacuum gauge that will work for all applications and that
different types of gauges will use different pressure units.
The normal measurement ranges for various gauges are sum-
marized in Figure 5.14a. A variety of pressure units will be
used in this section.
should also be prepared to deal with potentially confusing
vocabulary when describing various pressure situations. Peo-
ple with different technical backgrounds may use the terms
low vacuum, low pressure, and/or high vacuum, and high
pressure imprecisely at different times. The reader should
refer to a pressure that is very much lower than atmospheric
pressure as a low pressure or a high vacuum environment.
For a process situation that is very close to but below atmo-
spheric pressure, the terms to use would be low vacuum or
high pressure. In all situations, when a vacuum is referenced
or described, the maximum pressure value being considered
is atmospheric pressure. Therefore, vacuum chambers located
in Denver, CO, or Geneva, Switzerland, have maximum pres-
sure values that are less than 1 atm (760 mmHg).
VACUUM GAUGE CLASSIFICATIONS
There are a variety of ways to categorize vacuum gauges.
Grouping gauges by operational principle is one common
way. Thus, the Bourdon tube and the bellows gauge are
classified as mechanical gauges, but the spinning element
gauge is know as a momentum transfer gauge. Figure 5.14a
provides a list of vacuum gauges and their operating range
grouped by operational principle. Vacuum gauges that func-
tion because of a mechanical principle typically perform a
differential pressure measurement.
Gauges that operate within the same pressure range can
also be grouped together. Pirani gauges work in the same
general pressure range as thermocouple (TC) gauges but the

2003 by Bla Liptk


Redhead
Bayard-Alpert
Philips
Momentum
Thermocouple
Pirani
Viscous Friction
Capacitance
Convectron
Quartz
Diaphragm
Bellows
Bourdon Tube
10 0.1
10+2 100 102
FIG. 5.14a
Ranges of the different types of vacuum gauges.
ion gauge would not be grouped with these two. A third way
to categorize vacuum gauges is to identify if they actually
make a direct or an indirect pressure measurement. Thus, a
direct vacuum pressure measurement gauge will provide a new
measurement signal value simply because the pressure being
measured changes. The indirect pressure measurement gauge
is actually monitoring some other parameter of the system that
proportionally responds as the pressure of the system changes.
A vacuum gauge that uses a TC as the pressure-sensing element
is one example of an indirect pressure gauge. The increase or
decrease in pressure near the thermocouple does not directly
alter the electromagnetic force generated by that TC. However,
that pressure change does reflect a change in the molecular
population near the TC. This molecular density change affects
the heat transfer near that TC, which, in turn, alters the value
of voltage, measured across the TC.
Finally, it is also important to identify if the vacuum gauge
performs an absolute pressure measurement. Similar to pressure
gauges designed for above atmospheric pressure measurement
applications, vacuum pressure gauges may provide an absolute
or gauge pressure reading. Naturally, it is important for instru-
mentation and controls personnel to know which type of pres-
sure measurement is being taken. The adjustment from gauge
to absolute pressure is straightforward and may be provided as
an electronic correction within the gauges. Elastic element
based vacuum gauges are simple and inexpensive examples. If
2003 by Bla Liptk
5.14 Vacuum Sensors 797
ionization
gauge
thermal
gauge
mechanical
gauge
Medium Vacuum
Range
0.001
104 106 108 1010
Pressure in Torr
the vacuum is measured against an internal vacuum reference,
the instrument is called an absolute pressure sensor; when the
vacuum is compared to the barometric pressure, the instrument
will measure gauge pressure and is sometimes identified as a
compound pressure gauge. Examples of absolute pressure vac-
uum sensors include the copper-beryllium alloy bellows ele-
ments shown in Figures 5.3a, 5.3b, and 5.3c. Diaphragm-type
vacuum gauges (Figure 5.5f ) use hermetically sealed, thin-
walled, copper-beryllium alloy, circular capsules. Similarly to
the diaphragm and bellows elements, thin-walled, multiturn
spiral Bourdon tube elements can also be used to measure
vacuum when a second reference Bourdon tube, containing a
near absolute zero vacuum, is also provided as reference.
MECHANICAL VACUUM GAUGES
Manometers
Manometers (Section 5.9) that use a liquid working fluid rep-
resent the classical differential pressure measurement device.
They are simple and inexpensive and some of their design
variations are also shown in Figures 5.9a, 5.9c, 5.9h, and 5.9i.
The simplest design for a vacuum pressure measurement
application is a U-tube with one leg connected to an evacuated
reference chamber, while the other is exposed to the unknown
process pressure. The difference between the two column
798 Pressure Measurement

heights indicates the process vacuum. The precision of reading Tensioned Inconel
the manometer is limited to about 0.1 mm when detected by Diaphragm
the naked eye. Inclining the manometer tube and using lower-
density filling fluids (low-vapor-pressure oils) can improve the
sensitivity of the readout to about 10 mtorr. When the units Capacitance
are operated at constant temperatures and are provided with Signals
micrometer readouts, vacuums down to the 1 mtorr level can
Process Pressure
be detected. Manometers are not used in vacuum related pro-
cesses that require medium to high vacuum or a clean vacuum
environment. This limitation reflects the possible vaporization Dual Electrodes
of the filling fluids at high vacuums or at high temperatures.
Density variation and light refraction can also make it difficult
to read the gauge. Although liquid manometers have limited High Vacuum
use in todays process environment, the term manometer has Reference Cavity
become ubiquitous. It is now generally applied to vacuum
FIG. 5.14b
gauges that make differential measurements, but do not nec- One-sided capacitance manometer detector can also be used on
essarily contain a working fluid. corrosive services.
1

Capacitance Manometers

The capacitance-type pressure detectors are examples of

manometers that do not have a moving fluid as a sensor element. Top (Bottom)
Vertical
Capacitance manometers have already been described in con- Suspended Ball Stabilization
nection with Figure 5.7i. These gauges provide high precision Rotation Permanent Magnets Coils
Driving
differential measurements because of their ability to detect Coils
extremely small diaphragm movements. The thinnest dia-
5
phragms are capable of measurement down to the 10 torr Gas Entry Port
level, while for the thicker diaphragms the measuring range from Vacuum
Chamber
can be extended to atmospheric or higher pressures.
A single capacitance manometer can report vacuum pres- Suspended Ball Suspended
sures values over a four- or five-decade range. Their inaccuracy in Sampling Tube Permanent Magnets Ball Rotation
in units of percent reading rises from about 0.1 to about 3% as Driving Coils
4
the vacuum rises from 1.0 torr to 10 torr. These devices, also
called micromanometers, are differential pressure detectors that
use a flexible diaphragm in an electrical capacitance circuit. FIG. 5.14c
One plate of the capacitor is the pressure-sensitive diaphragm Spinning ball element type vacuum gauge.
in the bridge circuit. The DC balancing voltage connected
across the plates of the capacitor exerts an electrostatic force. and the mirror used to detect its deflection have already been
When a pressure change occurs, the diaphragm deflects and the discussed in connection with Figure 5.4i. When used for vac-
electrostatic force restores the balance that opposes the initial uum detection, two quartz Bourdon elements are formed into
diaphragm movement. The magnitude of this rebalance voltage a helix. The reference tube contains a sealed vacuum, while
is a measure of the pressure exerted on the flexible diaphragm. the measuring tube is connected to the unknown process
The materials used in single capacitance manometer vacuum. The pressure difference between the two (at constant
detectors include Monel, Inconel, high-nickel alloys, and temperature) results in an angular deflection, which is
ceramics. The single-sided design illustrated in Figure 5.14b detected optically. The optical readout is used to eliminate
is corrosion-resistant because only one side of the diaphragm friction effects and to guarantee high resolution (about one
is exposed to the process vapors. Some models can operate part in 100,000). The main advantages of this detector are its
at temperatures up to 750F (400C). The two main sources precision and the corrosion resistance of quartz; however, it
of error are nonlinearity and temperature effects. As an alter- is an expensive gauge.
native to temperature compensation, the sensor can also be
heated and operated at a constant temperature. Viscous Friction of Spinning Ball

Quartz Helix Vacuum Gauge
The quartz helix vacuum gauge is an example of a mechanical
vacuum gauge that makes a differential pressure measurement
without a working fluid element. The quartz helix element
At high vacuums, viscosity and friction are pressure-depen-
7
dent. This instrument detects vacuum pressures down to 10
torr by detecting the deceleration caused by molecular friction
on a levitating and spinning ball in a magnetic field. As suggested
in Figure 5.14c, the vacuum is measured in this instrument by

2003 by Bla Liptk


first driving the ball until it reaches a rotational speed of about
425 r/s. When the drive is turned off, the rotational speed drops
as a function of the viscous friction of the process vapors.
When the speed has dropped to 405 r/s, the ball is accelerated
again. The pressure of the gas in the gauge is related to the
time that it takes for the speed to drop from 425 to 405 r/s.
As the process pressure decreases, the time needed to reach
the lower rotational speed increases.
This instrument has several process advantages. Since
its wetted parts are made of stainless steel, the gauge is
suitable for corrosive services. It is also suited for operation
at baking temperatures up to 750F (400C). When cali-
brated, the inaccuracy (uncertainty) can be as low as 1.5%
of the reading. Without calibration, the uncertainty is 4%
or more.
Molecular Momentum Vacuum Gauges
Molecular momentum type gauges have two basic working
parts: a rotating and a restrained cylinder. The gas molecules
from the vacuum chamber come in contact with the rotating
cylinder (at a constant speed of 3600 rpm), experience a
momentum change, and are set in motion in the direction of
rotation. These molecules acquire energy from contact with
the spinning cylinder, and then, in turn, strike and transfer
that energy to the restrained cylinder. The pressure measure-
ment is possible because these molecular collisions move the
restrained cylinder a distance that is proportional to the energy
transferred and represents a function of the number of gas
molecules in that space. The number of molecules is related
to the absolute pressure of the gas. The pointer attached to
the restrained cylinder indicates the gas pressure on the scale,
somewhat similar to the operation of the viscous drag gas
density sensor in Chapter 6.
The energy transferred in momentum transfer gauges is
not just related to the number of molecules (pressure) and
the velocity of molecules. The molecular weight of the gas
is also a factor. Thus, the full-scale range of the gauge
depends on the type of gas to be detected. For air, the range
3 4
is 20 to 10 mmHg (2.7 to 1.3 10 kPa), while for hydro-
gen, the maximum reading on the instrument is 280 mmHg
(37 kPa). Thus, molecular momentum transfer vacuum gauges
have to be calibrated for each application.
Molecular momentum transfer gauges give continuous
direct readout, but are not usually available as a signal trans-
mitter for remote indication or control. The inaccuracy of the
unit is between 5 and 25%, with accuracy decreasing at
lower pressures. Additional inaccuracy can be caused by
process temperature variations, which in the range of 50 to
100F (28 to 56C), can amount to 2%. External vibration
in the range of 50 cps should be protected against by the use
of bellows couplings on the process connection. The gauge is
not damaged by exposure to atmospheric pressure, but the
sample from the process has to be kept clean, free of dust, oil,
or other particles.
2003 by Bla Liptk
5.14 Vacuum Sensors 799
Mechanical Linkage Vacuum Gauge
The only vacuum gauges that operate by a mechanical link-
age are the ones used for vacuum measurements, such as the
Bourdon gauge and the bellows gauge. The Bourdon gauge
is also know as a C tube gauge and operates by the curving
and uncurving of a hollow tube that is connected to the
process under vacuum. The movement of this C shaped
tube alters the position of a needle pointer connected to the
end of the sensing tube by a ratchet and spring mechanism.
Although inexpensive and robust, the Bourdon gauge will
demonstrate a memory effect and does not fit into automated
data recording or process control situations. In addition, it
has a limited range and is not used in vacuum processes that
operate at pressures below 1 torr.
The Bellows vacuum gauge is another example of a
mechanical linkage type gauge. In this case, the bellows
expands or contracts based on the pressure difference across
the inside and outside of the bellows unit. The gauge readout
is also the result of a mechanical interaction between the
bellows and the needle pointer. These gauges do not have
electronic readouts.
THERMAL VACUUM GAUGES
Heat transfer is a useful characteristic of a gas with respect
to the operational basis for a grouping of vacuum gauges.
If a heated element with constant power input is placed in
a vacuum environment, the surface temperature of that ele-
ment will be a function of the heat conductance of the
process gas, which also relates to the pressure of the process
gas near the heating element. Thermal vacuum gauges con-
sist of three basic elements: a heater, a temperature sensor,
and a compensator for process temperature variations. There
are two basic designs, depending on the type of temperature
sensor used: the resistance wire and the TC. In general,
thermal vacuum gauges measure pressures down to 1 mtorr
3
(10 mmHg, 0.13 Pa) absolute pressures. Although this limit
can be extended with special designs involving special
amplifiers and liquid nitrogen cooling around the gauge tube
to reduce radiation losses, an ion gauge is the single gauge
4
of choice when the pressure drops below 10 torr. Usual
applications for thermal vacuum gauges include refrigera-
tion, vacuum furnaces, freeze-drying, air conditioning, phar-
maceutical productions, and the manufacture of thermal food
containers.
Thermal vacuum gauges may be orientation sensitive.
Once attached to the vacuum system and calibrated, the
pressure readings from the gauge are dependent on that
physical location and orientation. If the gauge is remounted
at the same location but rotated from its original position,
the gauge may need to be recalibrated. Most thermal vacuum
gauge manufacturers will indicate if their gauge is position
sensitive and also indicate on the gauge housing the recom-
mended gauge orientation.
800 Pressure Measurement
Compensating Cell
Output
Voltage Voltage
Supply
Process
Pressure
Measuring Cell
FIG. 5.14d
Resistance wire (Pirani) vacuum detector.
Pirani Vacuum Gauge
The Pirani gauge is a popular example of a thermal vacuum
gauge. In this device, a constant current heats a filament
that is cooled by the gas present in the vacuum environment.
Since the amount of heat transferred changes with the
number of molecules, the equilibrium temperature, which
is detected as the resistance of the metal wire, ribbon, or
thermistor element, is a function of the gas pressure near
the wire. Figure 5.14d outlines the components of opera-
tion for the Pirani gauge. The heating and sensing elements
are often combined as part of a Wheatstone bridge type
sensing circuit. A second resistance wire, which is enclosed
in a reference vacuum, is used to compensate for process
temperature variations. The readout device detects the
amount of current or voltage that is necessary to return the
bridge circuit to balance after a change in the vacuum being
measured.
The standard pressure-sensing range for a Pirani gauge
3
is between 10 and 1 mmHg (0.13 to 133 Pa) absolute. The
inaccuracy of the gauge is about 2% at the calibration pres-
sure and 10% over the operating range. Maximum output
signal is about 0.1 mA at full-scale reading.
Pirani gauges are relatively inexpensive and convenient
to use. They are not used for reliable pressure measurements
higher than 1.0 torr, because at higher pressures the thermal
conductivity of gases does not decrease with the decrease
in pressure. The scale of the Pirani gauge is linear between
3 2
10 to about 2 10 torr. Above these pressures it becomes
roughly logarithmic. The two scales, when provided, are
usually calibrated in terms of air. However, the gauge is gas
dependent since different gases have different thermal con-
ductivity. Therefore, the Pirani gauge is composition-depen-
dent and needs to be calibrated for the process gas in the
application.
Pirani gauges are not highly accurate. As they depend on
the detection of thermal conductivity, the surface conditions
and emmissivity of the heated elements do affect the reading.
As these surfaces are coated, oxidized, or carbonized, their
temperatures rise and the sensor is likely to read high by as
2
much as 2 10 torr. This represents a very large error at
the low end of the pressure range. Another substantial error
source is changes in the bridge voltage.
2003 by Bla Liptk
Hot Junction Process
is Welded to the Connection
Heater
Midpoint of the Heater
Thermocouple
D.C.
Potentiometer
Readout
110V, 60C A.C.
FIG. 5.14e
Single thermocouple vacuum gauge.
Thermocouple Vacuum Gauge
As shown in Figure 5.14e, the single TC detector consists of
a wire heated by the passage of constant AC or DC current.
A TC is welded to the center of this heated filament, thereby
providing means to measure the temperature of the filament
directly. An opening in the tube is provided for connection
to the vacuum system being measured.
In operation, the constant current passing through the
heater wire is in the order of 20 to 200 mA, and the TC sensor
develops a full-scale output in the order of 20 mV DC. For
any constant value of current through the filament, the tem-
perature increases as the pressure in the tube is reduced. The
temperature detected by the TC depends on the thermal con-
ductivity of the gas surrounding the junction. For the same gas,
thermal conductivity is related to pressure when the pressure
is at or below 1.0 torr. Like the Pirani gauge, TC gauge response
is process gas dependent and the gauge must be calibrated
for specific applications.
The available readout devices are as varied as the receiving
instruments that measure TC output signals. Sensitive millivolt
meters and potentiometers are common choices. At higher
2
ranges, such as 5 to 10 mmHg (665 to 0.13 Pa), dual scales
3
are usually used, while for the standard range, 0.1 to 10 mmHg
(133 to 0.13 Pa), a single scale is sufficient. The reading
inaccuracy at midscale is 2%, while 10% covers the full
range. On multistation installations, a single readout device
can serve several TC gauges through a manual selector switch.
Because all filaments are on at the same time, the readings
are instantaneous.
The filament temperature is kept below 400F (250C) to
reduce the possibility of the sample gases decomposing or form-
ing a deposit on the gauge tube elements. Compensation can

be provided for process temperature variations, which other-
wise would introduce an error by affecting the filament
temperature. This is achieved by the use of a reference gauge
that has been fully evacuated and sealed. The same current
and voltage are applied to both the measuring and the ref-
erence gauges. The temperature of the two heater wires is
then compared, and the difference is used as a measure of
process vacuum. The reference tube compensates for ambi-
ent temperature changes because the two cells are at the
same temperature. Generally, the inherent low accuracy of
these sensors does not make it worthwhile to compensate
for ambient temperature variations.
It is also important that the filament current and voltage
be carefully maintained for stable calibration. Filaments should
not become dull or tarnished due to contamination because
this would cause radiation losses affecting calibration. One
way to overcome this problem is to precoat the filaments so
that further contamination would have no effect. Unfortu-
nately, precoating tends to impair gauge sensitivity. However,
several precoated TCs connected in series, a thermopile, pro-
vide extra potential output that compensates for sensitivity
losses due to filament precoating.
Thermopile Vacuum Gauge
To increase sensitivity, thermopiles can be used to detect
heater temperature. A thermopile vacuum gauge is a series
of TCs, and a typical design is shown in Figure 5.14f. In this
design, the TCs (A and B) are heated by low-voltage alter-
nating current so that the heater and the temperature-sensing
functions are combined in the same noble (noncorrosive)
Process Connection
to Vacuum System
Heated
Thermocouples
A C B
Unheated
Compensator
Thermocouple
D.C.
Readout
110V, 60C A.C.
FIG. 5.14f
Multiple thermocouple (thermopile) vacuum gauge.
2003 by Bla Liptk
5.14 Vacuum Sensors 801
metal thermopile. A change in process pressure results in a
change of thermopile temperature causing a new DC output
from the TCs. A third unheated thermocouple (C) is included
in the circuit to compensate for operating process temperature
variations. This couple is the same size as the heated ones,
but it is connected in opposite polarity. A change in process
temperature develops voltages in all the TCs, but the transient
effects are equal and opposite in the heated and unheated
elements. Therefore, compensation is achieved.
Thermopile vacuum gauges have the same features and
accessories normally associated with a single TC gauge.
However, the following additional characteristics should
be noted. First, because of the noble metals used in the ther-
mopile, oxidation of the couples does not occur. Second, the
operating temperature of the heated thermopile is lower than
that of the hot filament used in the single couple design.
Therefore, the probability of sample gas decomposition or
deposit formation is remote. Third, thermopile gauges that
withstand several thousand PSIG overpressures are avail-
able. Fourth, the gauges are corrosion resistant, rugged under
demanding conditions, and provide stable calibrations. The
cold junctions are kept at ambient temperature by heavy
mounting studs. Thus, the amplified electromagnetic force
generated between the hot and cold junctions tends to be a
stable signal that reflects the temperature change at the hot
junctions. Finally, accurate readings are obtained in the
1 3
range of 10 to 10 mmHg (13 to 0.13 Pa), but extended
coarse detection is feasible over a broader range from 100
4 2
mmHg (13 KPa) to 10 mmHg (1.3 10 Pa) absolute
pressures.
Convectron Vacuum Gauge
A convectron gauge is similar to thermal conductivity type
vacuum detectors, except that it provides a wider (six-decade)
3
range, from 10 to 1000 torr within a single gauge. The heat
loss sensor is a temperature-compensated gold-plated tung-
sten wire that detects both conduction and convection cooling
effects. At lower pressures (higher vacuums), it operates as
a thermal conductivity vacuum gauge, while at higher pres-
sures (in excess of 1.0 torr), it depends on convective cooling
as the sensing principal. In this pressure regime, the process
gas molecules are circulated in the sensor tube by gravita-
tional forces.
In most respect, the features and limitations of convectron
vacuum gauges are similar to the Pirani and TC gauges, but
in addition to the extended range, there are some other nota-
ble differences. These include a lower sensor wire tempera-
ture, which is likely to reduce the coating and carbonization
on the sensor wire surface. The gauge tube is stainless steel
and can be baked to up to 300F (150C), when not operating.
The maximum ambient or operating temperature is 122F
(50C). The bridge circuit is an integral part of the gauge
tube, which is vibration and position-sensitive (it must be
horizontal). The gauge is calibrated for nitrogen, and must
be recalibrated when used on other gases.
802 Pressure Measurement
IONIZATION VACUUM GAUGES
Ionization vacuum detectors have been available since 1916.
However, practical, reliable, and sturdy ionization vacuum
gauges did not come into common use until the 1930s. Today,
ionization gauges are routinely used to detect pressure levels
4 9
from 10 to 10 torr. All ionization vacuum gauges detect
an electric current that is generated from the ionization of
the gas whose pressure is being measured. Ion gauges are
distinguished by the method applied in producing the ions.
To convert a gas molecule into a positive ion, an electron
must be removed. If an atom or a molecule is supplied with
energy equal to its ionization potential, an outer orbit electron
will escape and a positive ion will be created. The approxi-
mate energy values required for ionization range from 5 to
30 eV. If this energy is supplied at a constant rate and suffi-
cient atoms and molecules are available, the ions will be
produced at a similarly constant rate. This ion stream is
directed to the gauges cathode, and the current that flows
through that cathode is proportional to the pressure of the
gas in the gauge. The initial ion current is also proportional
to molecular weight. The ionic current generally rises with
molecular weight. In any case, calibration is usually done
with dry nitrogen or air. The various designs for ionization
gauges can be grouped by the method used to generate and
direct the ion current. One broad grouping for ion gauges
includes hot cathode and the cold cathode gauges.
Hot Cathode Ionization Gauges
In the Bayard-Alpert hot cathode filament vacuum gauge illus-
trated in Figure 5.14g, the ionization energy is supplied by
electron bombardment. The electrons are derived from thermi-
onic emission from the hot filament. As these electrons are
attracted to and passing through the helix shaped grid, they
acquire kinetic energy. When the electrons finally collide with
the gas molecules from the vacuum system, positive ions are
Negatively Biased Positive Gas Entry Port
Ion Collection Electrode from Vacuum
Chamber
Hot Electron
Spare
Filament Emitting Filament
Helix-Shaped
Acceleration Grid
FIG. 5.14g
Hot cathode ionization vacuum gauge. (Courtesy of Bayard-Alpert.)
2003 by Bla Liptk
produced. These ions are then attracted to the negatively
charged collector electrode in the center of the grid to form an
ion current. At constant accelerating voltage, the number of
ions formed is proportional to the gas pressure if it is below
3
10 mmHg (0.13 Pa). Variations on the design include capping
the end of the grid to prevent electron escape. A fine wire
collection electrode reduces the x-ray-generated photo current.
A spare emission filament is also often provided. At higher
pressures, the relationship between plate current and pressure
is not linear. This is because the mean free path becomes so
short that an ionized molecule may pick up a free electron to
become a molecule before it reaches the collector plate.
The accuracy of a hot cathode ionization gauge is poor
because the number of gas molecules to be measured is very
5 3
small. At an absolute pressure of 10 mmHg (1.3 10 Pa),
the inaccuracy would be about 10%. The vacuum range
3 11
detectable by the hot cathode gauge is 10 to 10 mmHg
1 9
(1.3 10 to 1.3 10 Pa). The minimum span of the
readout device is one decade, and it can be furnished with
five or six ranges. Range switching can be automatic or
manual from the instruments front panel.
The sensitivity of the hot cathode gauge is 100 A/m
3
(10 mmHg) pressure. The readout device can be combined
with thermocouple readout to extend its coverage to vacuums
3
in the range of 1 to 10 mmHg (133 to 0.13 Pa). This is a
common practice, but a protective relay circuit is also fur-
nished to prevent filament burnout by keeping it off at pressures
3
higher than 10 mmHg. Besides multirange indicators, the
readout device can provide signals for actuate electrical control
and alarm circuits. When several ionization sensors are
involved, the output signals can be multiplexed to reduce the
number of signal detectors and pressure monitors, reducing
total system cost.
The hot filament vacuum gauge provides a wide pressure
reading range with fast response. Its application is limited to
gases that will not decompose on the hot filament. The glass
ionization tube, by its nature, is subject to mechanical dam-
age. However, gauges for industrial process applications are
commercially available. The filament current is controlled in
such a way that a constant flow of electrons is emitted from
it. In some designs, calibration is maintained by controlling
the grid charge so that if emissivity of the filament is decreas-
ing, the grid receives a correspondingly greater charge to
maintain the entire circuit in equilibrium.
The limitations of the hot-cathode design are related to
the high filament temperatures (about 4000F, or 200C)
involved. At such temperatures, the incandescent filament
tends to deteriorate and is also susceptible to chemical attack.
The sorption of gas by the hot filaments and the degassing
that follows is another potential error source. These effects
are addressed by alternative gauge designs that use large
diameter tubes and minimize in vacuum connection lengths.
As suggested above, various modified Bayard-Alpert hot
cathode vacuum gauges are available from different ion
gauge manufacturers. One example is the Schultz and Phelps
modification shown in Figure 5.14h. This gauge covers the
 5.14 Vacuum Sensors 803

5
vacuum range of 1 to 10 torr and can be obtained in an which ions are produced. In the hot filament unit, the elec-
integrated unit with the Bayard-Alpert unit, when a wider trons are derived from thermionic emission. In the cold cath-
vacuum range needs to be covered. ode design, a high-potential field withdraws the electrons
from the electrode surface. Because the rate of electron emis-
Cold Cathode Ionization Gauges sion is lower in the cold cathode units, the collision frequency
between gas molecules and electrons would also be lower if
The cold cathode vacuum gauge is a composition sensitive the electrons traveled in a straight path. To increase the path
gauge traditionally known as Philips gauges, after its first length of the electrons, a magnetic field is created around the
manufacturer, or a Penning gauge after F.M. Penning, who tube to deflect the electrons. Thereby, the emitted electrons
outlined its operating principle in 1937. The basic difference spiral as they move across a magnetic field to the anode
between cold and hot cathode gauges is in the method by (Figure 5.14i). This spiraling action greatly increases the
electron path of travel and the corresponding chance of elec-
Exhaust System tron collision with gas molecules from the vacuum chamber.
The overall result is greater sensitivity of the cold cathode
gauge than that of the hot cathode.
The inaccuracy of the cold cathode unit is about 20% at
5 3
an absolute pressure of 10 mmHg (1.3 10 Pa). The gauge
High Pressure
Gauge response is gas molecular weight dependent and its detectable
2 7 5
vacuum range is from 10 to 10 mmHg (1.3 to 1.3 10 Pa).
As with the hot cathode gauges, the minimum span is one
Electron decade and readout devices are available with one, two, or
Collector three ranges, which are selected automatically or by manual
action at the front of the instrument. The gauge sensitivity is
Filament 5 mA/m micron pressure.
There are several advantages of the cold cathode gauge
relative to the hot cathode gauges. First, they cost less. Sec-
Ion
ond, they are more robust and do not burn out as easily. Third,
Collector
they do not subject the process gas to thermal stress. Cold
cathode gauge disadvantages include lower accuracy, nonlin-
ear output signal, and gas take-up caused by the high-voltage
operation. In order to remove polymerized organic contami-
nants, periodic cleaning of the electrodes and the vacuum
FIG. 5.14h chamber is required.
2
Hot cathode vacuum gauge. (Courtesy of Schultz-Phelps.)

Cathode

Process Micro-
Vacuum Anode Ammeter +
Reads the
~4000 V
Vacuum

Cathode

~1500 Gauss
Magnetic Field

FIG. 5.14i
Philips cold cathode ionization vacuum gauge. (The electrons travel from the cathode to the anode through a path of multiple spiral
oscillations which increase the opportunity for them to encounter and ionize molecules.)

2003 by Bla Liptk

804 Pressure Measurement

Similar to the hot cathode gauge, manufacturers have To Vacuum System

offered modified designs for the cold cathode gauge. One
Trap
example is a modification developed by Paul Redhead. In the
Redhead gauge, a cylindrical electrode is configured around
the anode that has a probe shape at the center axis. This
arrangement is like an inverted magnetron: the electrons ion-
Well
ize the gas molecules while they are spiraling in toward the
central anode, while the gas ions are collected on the cylin- Small Bulb Capillary
drical cathode surface. The Redhead gauge operates at around A
B
5000 V in a 1000-Gauss magnetic field and can detect vacu-
6 12 C
ums in the 10 to 10 torr range. Large Bulb
During the 1990s, a combination ionization gauge was
designed. This gauge is basically a cold cathode unit but is
Dual
furnished with a hot cathode serving to trigger the discharge Scale D
from the cold cathode. This design extends the detectable
4 14
pressure range to 10 decades, or from 10 to 10 mmHg Reservoir
2 12
(1.3 10 to 1.3 10 ) absolute.

Piston

VACUUM GAUGE CALIBRATION

Vacuum gauge calibration is an issue for two reasons. First, As a Reading is

Taken
a single vacuum gauge type does not work over the total Before Measurement
vacuum pressure range. Second, most vacuum gauges do not
directly measure pressure, and the pressure reading provided FIG. 5.14j
by the gauge is dependent on a property of the gas molecules Piston McLeod vacuum gauge.
being measured. Some common ways to calibrate vacuum
gauges are provided below. by capillary effects. These gauges are laboratory instruments
that measure on a sampling rather than on a continuous basis.
McLeod Vacuum Gauges They are not recommended for industrial installations.

The McLeod vacuum detector, or barometer gauge, is the
classic reference or calibration gauge. Figure 5.14j shows one
version of this gauge. In this design, the unit is stationary,
and a piston is used to trap the rarefied gas. The filling of the
gauge with mercury is done through the process connection.
This improved design does not use a dead-ended capillary,
and, therefore, the problems associated with keeping the cap-
illary clean are eliminated. The diagram on the left side of
Figure 5.14j shows the unit just prior to the taking of a
measurement. As the piston with micrometer adjustment is
moved up, the rarefied gas is trapped when the mercury
reaches point D; thus, the initial volume (V1) is the volume
between points A and D. When the instrument is connected
to the vacuum system, the mercury level in the reservoir is
below point D to allow trapped gases to be liberated. As the
piston is moved up, the mercury fills the large bulb up to
point C. At this point, a reading can be taken on the dual
scale if the pressure to be detected is in the mmHg range. If
the vacuum is higher, the piston is moved further up, increas-
ing the compression ratio until the mercury reaches point B
above the small bulb. In this case, the reading is taken on the
micron side of dual scale.
McLeod gauges can cover the vacuum range between 1
6 4
and 10 mmHg (133 and 1.3 10 Pa). At pressures below
4 2
10 mmHg (1.3 10 Pa), the reading accuracy is limited
Calibration Reference Tubes
A relatively new method of vacuum gauge calibration
involves the use of calibration reference tubes. These tubes
are available from most gauge manufacturers for application
with their specific gauges. These reference tubes are funda-
mentally evacuated, sealed vacuum tubes accurately cali-
brated to precisely simulate an operating pressure environ-
ment of the gauges to be calibrated. The tubes permit quick
and easy gauge recalibration by simply connecting the gauge
to be calibrated to the appropriate reference tube and adjust-
ing the gauges pressure reading to reflect the value stated
on the reference tube.
VACUUM CONTROLLERS
Vacuum gauges are one part of a vacuum process instrument
system. In the complete instrument system, the process vac-
uum pressure is compared to a desired set point value, and,
if necessary, a corrective signal is sent to a final control
element. The vacuum controller is the component of the system
that will alter a control signal to adjust the vacuum pressure
when a process disturbance occurs. Process controllers do
not have to have a pressure readout system; they only require

2003 by Bla Liptk


Connection to
Vacuum Source
Valve Control
Port
Spring
Filtered Air
Evacuated Controlled
Reference Vacuum
Bellows Sensing
Line
FIG. 5.14k
Aneroid manostat.
a way to determine if the current vacuum is at the desired
set point condition. Three types of vacuum controllers are
briefly discussed.
Aneroid Manostats
The aneroid manostat illustrated in Figure 5.14k is a self-
contained bellows-type vacuum controller. The bellows are
fully evacuated to provide a zero absolute pressure reference
unaffected by barometric changes. The spring is temperature-
compensated, and its tension is adjustable over the entire range
of the controller, which is 1 to 60 in.Hg (3.4 to 200 kPa)
absolute pressure. The sensitivity of setting is about 0.5 mmHg
(0.07 kPa) and the inaccuracy of control is 2% of set pressure.
The aneroid manostat works at above and below atmo-
spheric process conditions. When a below-atmospheric pres-
sure is to be maintained, connections are made both to the
vacuum source (usually a vacuum pump) and to the controlled
system. The spring tension is set for the desired set pressure,
and expansion or contraction of the bellows moves the valve
port to control the airflow through the manostat. The manostat
is primarily designed for dead-ended service, but it will handle
small flows. For example, at a setting of 300 mmHg (2000 kPa)
without any restrictions in the vacuum source line, it will pass
3
0.2 ft (6 l) of air each minute. When an above-atmospheric
pressure is to be controlled, the filtered air supply is not atmo-
spheric any longer, but connected to a pressurized supply, and
the vacuum source connection is left open to vent the unit.
Cartesian Diver Regulators
Cartesian divers are self-contained pressure, or vacuum, reg-
ulators operating on principles somewhat similar to those of
the aneroid manostats. As shown in Figure 5.14l, the set pres-
sure for this controller is sealed in under the diver. The process
pressure acts on the outside of the diver causing it to sink or
2003 by Bla Liptk
5.14 Vacuum Sensors 805
Vent
To
Restriction
Vacuum Pump
or Other
Vacuum Source Control Process
Port
Diver
Connection
Air Supply
for Positive
Pressure
Service
Seal Fluid
Set Pressure
Connection
FIG. 5.14l
Cartesian diver.
rise as pressure varies. If the unit is to control a vacuum process,
a vacuum pump (or other vacuum source) is connected to the
unit. A process pressure increase causes the diver to sink,
opening the control port and connecting the vacuum pump to
the process to lower its pressure. If the unit is installed for
positive pressure control, a pressure source, not a vacuum
source, is connected to the control port, which is closed by an
increase in process pressure and opened by its reduction.
This device is capable of maintaining process pressures
between 1 mmHg absolute to 100 psia (0.13 to 690 kPa) to
an approximate inaccuracy of 0.1% of set point. The unit is
available in both glass and metal, requires no external power
source, and is simple to operate or to change its set pressure.
Because of its limited flow capacity, it can control small
volume systems only.
Analog Electronic Controllers
Continuous reading, relay action, analog gauge, electronic
controllers are also available and used for vacuum control.
These instruments provide dependable control with simplic-
ity and economy. The desired set point is established by
positioning the gauge need set point indicator at the desired
value. The systems integrated vacuum gauge is stable and
rugged and provides reliable measurements over the 1 to 50
torr range commonly provided. If the pressure-indicating
needle passes the set point, the relay is activated. The relay
action is typically available as 115 V 5A SPDT @VAC nor-
mally open or normally closed contacts. The relay automat-
ically drops out when set point vacuum value returns.
Mass Flow Controllers
Many vacuum related processes require vacuum control, while
process gases are admitted on a continuous basis. A (PID)
process control loop for such circumstances is possible with
a mass flow controller. Vacuum process mass flow controllers
806 Pressure Measurement
usually detect the temperature change as the gas passes
through a small, typically 3-in. flow chamber. The temperature
is monitored with a TC gauge, and chambers can have stream
splitter bypass elements to allow adaptation to different pro-
cess gas flow ranges. The differential temperature measure-
ment signal becomes the input to an electronic PID controller
and the resulting control signal is sent to the final control
element.
There are several final control element choices for mass
flow controllers dedicated to vacuum process gas control. The
solenoid proportional valve is one widely used cost effective
control value that is coupled to a mass flow controller. This
final control element uses a solenoid coil, a spring-supported
armature, plug, and orifice. The unit can be configured with
an elastomer sealed valve. The assembly also usually contains
both external seals, which isolate the gas flow path from
atmosphere, and an internal seal for the valve seat. All metal
versions of the value are available when the process gas is
also corrosive.
Other control value options include a pieazoelectric con-
trol valve and moving coil actuator valve. In the former, a
stack of piezoelectric elements drives the value. This valve
type has a fast response time with high valve action force.
The counter valve action can be spring or diaphragm driven.
Piezo valves are all constructed from metal. For the latter
valve option, the actuator is a moving coil that surrounds a
permanent magnet. As current passes through the coil, it is
displaced. The displacement is transferred by a pivot arm and
diaphragm action to the wetted volume on the other side of
the diaphragm. This type of valve action produces a low valve
sweep volume. This all-metal construction valve is good for
contamination-sensitive applications.
References
1. Welch, J., Capacitance Manometers, Measurements and Control,
December 1989.
2. Melling, R.J., Ionization Vacuum Gauge Measures Absolute Pres-
sure, Instruments and Control Systems, September 1964.
2003 by Bla Liptk
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