Chapter 5

Fault Detection & Fault Isolation ---

Protection Principles

1
Some basic protection terminologies

a. Main protection
b. Back-up protection
c. Unit protection
d. Non-unit protection
e. System earthing
-- Solidly earthed system
-- Resistively earthly system
f. Fault levels
g. Intertripping
h. Zones of protection

2
A main protection is defined as a
protection system which is normally
expected to operate in response to a
fault in the protected zone.

A B

P1
P1 is the main protection which is designed to respond
promptly to fault occurring in the protected zone
3
A back-up protection is defined as a
protection system intended to
supplement the main protection if the
latter becomes ineffective, or to deal
with faults in those parts of the power
system that are not readily included in
the operation zone of the main
protection .
A B

P1 is the main protection which is

P1 designed to respond promptly to
faults occurring in the protected zone

B1 is the back-up protection for

B1 supplementing P1 if it becomes ineffective, or
to deal with faults which are not covered by P1
4
Unit protection is a protection system
which is designed to operate only for
faults/abnormal conditions within a
clearly defined zone of power system.

Example : Current differential protection

Boundary of the
protection zone
defined by the
CTs at the two
ends

5
 Non-unit protection is a protection
system which has no clearly defined
zone of operation and which achieves
selectivity only by time grading.
Example : Over-current earth-fault protection

F1
F2
O/C E/F
The O/C E/F protection will operate for both
faults occurring at F1 and F2. The zone of
protection is not clearly defined

6
Why is system earthing required for a
power generation, transmission and
distribution network ?

The main purposes are :

To ensure operational safety
To provide a path for flow of earth
fault currents

There are two main types of system

earthing; they are called the solidly
earthed system and resistively earthed
system.
7
 VR
IF = V/ZS ignoring
N fault impedance

VB VY

Solidly earthed system

More severe voltage dip in case of fault
High earth fault current
Main protection with fast operating time should
be used
Usually adopted for transmission networks
8
 VR
IF = V/(ZS + R)
N ignoring fault
VB impedance
VY
R

Resistively earthed system

Less severe voltage dip in case of earth fault
Earth fault current less substantial because of the
earthing impedance R
Protection system with slower operating time can
be used
Usually adopted for distribution networks
9
Fault level, which is usually expressed
in MVA, = 3 x VL x IF
where VL = pre-fault line-to-line voltage in kV
IF = fault current in kA
For example, if the fault current at a
132kV busbar is 40kA, then the fault
level = 3 x 132 x 40 = 9145 MVA

Also, if the fault level at a 11kV zone-

substation is 350 MVA, then the fault
current = 350/(3 x 11) = 18.37 kA

10
Intertripping means the action of
initiating tripping of remote end(s) in
order to fully isolate a fault.
Example : On detecting the transformer fault at
Zone-substation B, the protection will immediately
trip the circuit breaker at B and also intertrip to A and
C in order to fully isolate the fault.

A B

C
11
Ideally, the zones of protection should
overlap across the circuit breaker as
shown.

12
However, for practical reasons, this ideal
is not always achieved -- accommodation
for CTs being in some cases available only
on one side of the circuit breaker as
shown.
In this case, the fault
at F will cause the
busbar protection to
operate and open the
circuit breaker but
the fault will continue
to be fed through the feeder. To clear this
blind spot fault, the busbar protection
will initiate a timer to trip the remote end
after a pre-determined time delay in order
to clear the fault. 13
 Busbar protection zone

Transformer
protection zone

Line protection zone

Generator
The zones of protection are usually protection
arranged to overlap with each other zone
so as to eliminate blind spots.
14
Having gone through some basic
protection terminologies but before we
start to examine how we can effectively
protect our transmission and distribution
circuits in order to ensure reliability of
supply, it is necessary to gain sufficient
insights of some protection principles
first.

15
Some basic protection principles

a. Over-current and earth-fault

protection
b. Current differential protection
-- for lines/cables
-- for transformers
-- for busbars (of various
configurations)
c. Distance protection
d. Under-frequency load-shedding
e. Trip supply supervision
f. Trip circuit supervision
16
Over-current and Earth-fault protection
Discrimination by time :
An appropriate time
interval is given by each
of the relays
controlling the circuit
breakers in a power system to ensure that
the breaker nearest to the fault opens first
as shown shown in the above diagram to
illustrate the principle.
The obvious disadvantage is that the
longest fault clearance time occurs for
faults in the section closest to the power
source, where the fault level (or fault MVA)
is the highest.
17
Discrimination by current :
This principle relies
the fact that the
fault current varies
with the position of
the fault, because of
the difference in
impedance values between the source
and the fault as shown in the diagram
(i.e. IF1 > IF2 > IF3 > IF4 ).
The obvious drawback of this method is
that it will only work satisfactorily if
there is very appreciable impedance
between the two circuit breakers
concerned. 18
Discrimination by both time and current :
It is because of the limitations imposed
by the independent
use of either time or
current coordination
that the inverse time
over-current relay
characteristic has
evolved. With this
characteristic, the
time of operation is
inversely proportional
to the fault current level. This
characteristic is called the inverse definite
minimum time (IDMT) characteristic. 19
This IDMT characteristic is extensively
used for over-current and earth-fault
(O/C E/F) protection, particularly in
distribution networks.
Two criteria are used to determine the
setting of an O/C or E/F relay; they are
called the plug setting and the time
multiplier setting. The setting ranges
are as follows :
O/C Relays E/F Relays
Plug settings 50% to 200% 20% to 80% in
in steps of 25% steps of 10%
Time multiplier 0.05 to 1.0 in 0.05 to 1.0 in
steps of 0.05 steps of 0.05

The relay rating is either usually 1A or 5A.

20
Example 1
A 5A O/C relay with :
CT ratio = 400/5A
P.S. = 150%
T.M. = 0.2
If the fault current = 6,000 A,
then the P.S. multiple
= 6000/(400 x 1.5) = 10
Thus, the relay operating
time from the IDMT curve
= 3 x T.M. = 3 x 0.2
= 0.6 seconds

If the fault current = 13,000 A,

then the P.S. multiple
= 13000/(400 x 1.5) = 21.67
The operating time become 2.2 x T.M. = 0.44 seconds21
Example 2
A 5A E/F relay with :
CT ratio = 400/5A
P.S. = 30%
T.M. = 0.25
If the fault current = 2,000 A,
then the P.S. multiple
= 2000/(400 x 0.3) = 16.7
Thus, the relay operating
time from the IDMT curve
= 2.4 x T.M. = 2.4 x 0.25
= 0.6 seconds

If the fault current = 800 A,

then the P.S. multiple
= 800/(400 x 0.3) =6.67
The operating time becomes 3.7 x T.M. = 0.925 seconds
22
 How are the CTs and relays connected to
achieve over-current and earth-fault
protection ?
The connection for O/C protection is
quite simple. Lets see the R-phase first :
R
N/1
Y

P1 P2
O/C
Ip

Is 23
Likewise for the Y-phase :

N/1
Y

O/C

24
Lastly for the B-phase :

N/1
O/C

25
Thus, the connections of the CTs and
relays the over-current protection for the
three phases are as follows :

R N/1

Y N/1

N/1
B

O/C

O/C O/C

26
But how about the connections of CTs
and relay(s) for achieving earth-fault
protection ?

Since IE/F = IR + IY + IB , we can easily

get the secondary replica of the primary
earth-fault current by summating the R,
Y and B phase CT secondary currents
vectorially.

27
Thus the connections for CTs and the
relay for achieving earth-fault protection
are as follows :
N/1

N/1

N/1

E/F
28
Hence, the connections of CTs and relays
for achieving over-current and earth-
fault protection are as follows :
N/1
R

Y
N/1

B N/1

O/C

O/C O/C

E/F
29
 With this, we achieve the protection for
the following types of faults :
i) R-E, Y-E, B-E ii) R-Y, Y-B, B-R
iii) R-Y-E, Y-B-E, B-R-E iv) R-Y-B v) R-Y-B-E
N/1
R

Y
N/1

N/1
B

O/C

O/C O/C

E/F
30
 Having gone through the relay
operation(s) for each and every of the
above-mentioned types of faults, you
can easily find out that one of the three
O/C relays is redundant !
R N/1

Y N/1

N/1
B

O/C

O/C O/C

E/F
31
Because of this, it is a common trade
practice to do without the Y-phase O/C
relay. The O/C E/F protection therefore
becomes : i) R-E, Y-E, B-E
ii) R-Y, Y-B, B-R
iii) R-Y-E, Y-B-E, B-R-E
N/1 iii) R-Y-B
R v) R-Y-B-E

Y
N/1

B N/1

O/C O/C

E/F
32
33
O/C E/F protection with such an
arrangement (i.e. 2 x O/C elements plus
1 x E/F element) is extensively used by
power companies worldwide for :
a. Main protection for distribution
circuits ;
b. Back-up protection for other types
of main protection for generation,
transmission and distribution
circuits.
It is also widely adopted as a main
protection for customers HV* and LV
installations.
* HV is defined as an AC voltage exceeding 1000 V
34
High-set over-current
and earth-fault
protection
In order to achieve the
fastest relay operating
time when the fault
current is excessively
high, a high-set O/C
element may be added
to the relay and the
IDMT characteristic
becomes as shown
(see the red portion of
the curve).
35
Current differential protection for
overhead lines and underground cables

N/1 Load current = IL N/1

IL /N
Diff

IL /N Irelay = 0

Irelay = 0 ;
The protection remains stable when normal
load current flows through the circuit.

36
Current differential protection for
overhead lines and underground cables
In-zone fault
current = IF1 + IF2
N/1 N/1
IF1 IF2

Irelay 0
Diff IF2 /N
IF1 /N

Irelay =(IF1 + IF2)/N ;

The protection operates when an
in-zone fault occurs on the circuit.

37
Current differential protection for
overhead lines and underground cables

N/1 IOUT N/1

IOUT /N

Diff
Out-zone fault
IOUT/N Irelay = 0 current = IOUT

Irelay = 0 ;
The protection remains stable when an out-zone
fault occurs external to the circuit.
38
The above illustrates the principle of
current differential protection for lines
and cables. It is a typical example of
unit protection in which the zone of
protection is clearly defined by the CTs
at the two ends.
The same principle can be applied to
protect a transformer but the CT ratios
at two ends have
to be carefully
chosen since the
voltage levels at
two ends are not
the same.
39
Can we apply this simple principle to
protect overhead lines or underground
cables ?
N/1 Load current = IL N/1

IL /N
Diff

IL /N Irelay = 0

The lines/cables are usually long (often

of the order of km or even 10s of km). So
is it practical to put the differential relay
at the middle of the line/cable ?
40
 Can we use two identical current
differential relays, one at each end, and
link the two relays together by means of
a pair of pilot wires ?
N/1 Load current = IL N/1

Diff Pilot wires Diff

IL /N
IL /N Irelay = 0 Irelay = 0

The answer is YES. If fact, this becomes

the pilot-wire current differential
protection for one phase of the
protected line/cable. 41
 For this reason, this is called 1-phase
pilot-wire current differential protection

N/1 Load current = IL N/1

Diff Pilot wires Diff

IL /N
IL /N Irelay = 0 Irelay = 0

But we have to protect ALL the three

phases in an overhead line or a cable !
Will there be a solution for achieving
this ? 42
There are obviously two alternatives :
i. Adopt three identical set-ups i.e.
three 1-phase pilot-wire current
differential protection systems, one
for each phase. But this will require
a total of three pairs of pilot wires
which may not always be available.
ii. If we prefer to use only one pair of
pilot wires, we need to use a
summation transformer to vectorially
sum up the secondary replicas of the
primary 3-phase currents before
applying to the pilot-wire current
differential protection circuit as
shown overleaf. 43
 Ir
1

Iy
1
Diff
Ib

n=6

Summation transformer

Ir Output = 0 if the primary is 1:1:1

Thus, primary of summation
Iy transformer is never 1:1:1
Ib
44
 Current differential protection for
overhead lines and underground cables

A N/1 N/1 B
I

Pilot wires Summation

transformer
accepting
currents
from all
the three
phases
Irelay at A = Irelay at B = 0 ;
The protection remains stable for normal load currents
and for out-zone faults occuring external to the circuit.
Relays at both ends operate simultaneously when an
in-zone fault occurs on the circuit.
45
It should be noted that :
i. The differential relays used can
either be electro-mechanical relays
or static/digital relays.
ii. If electro-mechanical current
differential relays are used (which is
mostly the case in Hong Kong), the
communication link has to be
metallic pilot pairs.
iii. If static/digital current differential
relays are applied (which are
increasingly gaining popularity in
Hong Kong), the communication link
can either be metallic pilot pairs or
optical cable cores. 46
Current differential protection for
Transformers
Before we examine the protection
principle for 3-phase power transformers,
we have to gain some insights of the
basic design and dynamic behaviour of
transformers used for power generation,
transmission and distribution. We shall
focus our review on the following :
i. Transformer HV/LV ratio
ii. Transformer HV and LV winding
connections
iii. Transformer tap range
iv. Transformer energisation inrush
current
47
i. Transformer HV/LV
ratio
The rated currents of
the transformer on
the primary and
secondary sides will
differ in inverse ratio
to the corresponding
voltages. The CTs
should therefore have
primary ratings to
match the rated
currents of the
transformer windings.
48
Main To illustrate this point, let us
primary re-visit the specification of a
winding
transformer which we have
come across in Chapter 1.
Secondary 132/11kV 40MVA transformer
winding
a. Nominal transformation ratio :
132kV step down to 11kV (i.e.
132kV 11kV 12 to 1)
b. On-load tap changing range :
+25% to -5% in 18 steps

Tap winding with multi taps

for on-load tap changing so as
to vary the transformer ratio
for maintaining a reasonably
steady secondary voltage as
the load changes

49
For this 40MVA 132kV/11kV transformer,

Vp = 132kV,
Vs = 11kV
Vp/Vs = 132/11
= 12

Also, Ip = (40 x 1000) / (1.7321 x 132) = 175A

and Is = (40 x 1000)/ (1.7321 x 11) = 2099A

Hence if we choose a CT ratio of 200/1A for the

primary side of the transformer current
differential protection, the CT ratio for the
secondary side of the transformer should be
2400/1A.

50
ii. Transformer HV and LV Winding
Connections
There are many possible winding
arrangements for 3-phase
transformers. For example star-star,
star-delta, delta-star etc.
Whenever star-delta or delta-star is
adopted, a phase shift of 300 will exist
between the transformer primary and
secondary lines currents. This must be
corrected by appropriate connection of
the CT secondaries.
Lets illustrate this in the following
slides.
51
 HV/LV = k
HV Yy0 LV
IR Ir

IY Iy

IB Ib

IR Ir

For a star-star connected 3-

phase transformer, there is
no phase shift in the
IB IY transformer primary and
secondary line currents of the
Iy corresponding phase.
Ib
52
 Thus, we can simply connect the CTs in star configuration on HV
and LV side of the transformer and form a current differential
protection circuit as shown below.
HV/LV = k
HV LV Nk/1
N/1 Yy0
IR Ir

IY Iy

IB Ib

Diff Diff Diff

53
However, this current differential protection arrangement only
works during steady state conditions and at a certain transformer
tap position. Thus, more refinements are required to cater for
initial energisation of transformer and also other tap positions.
HV/LV = k
N/1 HV LV Nk/1
IR Yy0 Ir

IY Iy

IB Ib

Diff Diff Diff

54
 HV/LV = k
HV LV
Yd11 Ir Ir - Iy
IR

Iy Iy - Ib
IY

Ib - Ir
IB

The line currents on the Ib

secondary side of the
transformer is 300 phase- IR
shifted and with a Ir 300
Ir - Iy lagging
magnitude of 3 times the behind
original value. IR

These should be properly -Iy

compensated by choosing
the right CT ratio and IB IY
correct CT connections.
Ib 55 Iy
 N/0.577 HV/LV = k
HV LV
IR Yd11 Ir Nk/1 Ir - Iy

IY Iy Iy - Ib

IB Ib - Ir

Ib

Diff Diff Diff

56
However, this current differential protection arrangement only
works during steady state conditions and at a certain transformer
tap position. Thus, more refinements are required to cater for
initial energisation of transformer and also other tap positions.
HV/LV = k
IR HV LV Ir Nk/1 Ir - Iy
Yd11

IY Iy Iy - Ib

IB Ib - Ir

Ib
N/0.577

Diff Diff Diff

57
iii. Transformer tap range
A transformers normally has a tapping
range enabling its transformation
ratio (k) to be varied within a pre-
determined range. This must be
accounted for in the design of the
current differential protection system
for the transformer.
If the CTs for the differential
protection are chosen to balance only
for a certain transformation ratio, a
variation on the transformer ratio will
create an unbalance which is
proportional to the ratio change. 58
iii. Transformer tap range (cont.)
The current differential protection is
therefore equipped with a load bias
of an amount which exceeds in effect
the maximum transformation ratio
deviation.
This load bias stabilises the
differential protection from operation.
In fact, the greater the load bias (i.e.
the more the transformation ratio
deviation), the greater will be the
stabilising effect.
We shall illustrate this by referring to
the same transformer which we
discussed earlier on. 59
Main a. 132/11kV 40MVA transformer
primary b. Nominal transformation ratio :
winding 132kV step down to 11kV (i.e. 12 to 1)
c. On-load tap changing range :
Secondary +25% to -5% in 18 steps
winding
Thus, the maximum transformation ratio
= 132 : (11x0.95) = 132 : 10.45
= 12.63 : 1 5.25% deviation from 12
And, the minimum transformer ratio
132kV 11kV = 132 to (11x1.25) = 132 : 13.75
= 9.6 : 1 20% deviation from 12
Hence, a load bias setting of not less than
20% should be chosen. Taking into
account the tolerance for CT error and
add some reasonable safety margin, a
load bias setting of 30% is recommended
for this transformer current differential
protection. The refined protection
arrangement for this transformer is
shown in the next slide.

60
 N Rated transformer primary side current
174.9A. Lets choose N = 200A
N/0.577= 132/11 = k = 12 Nk/1
200/0.577 = (200 x 12)/1
132kV 40MVA 11kV I = 2400/1
IR r Ir - Iy
Yd11

IY Iy Iy - Ib

IB Ib - Ir

Ib

B B
B B
B B
B = Bias circuit
Diff Diff Diff
(load bias
= 30%)
61
iv. Transformer energisation inrush
current
A transformers is normally energised
from the HV side.
During the
energisation of
a transformer,
magnetising
inrush current
(of the order of
up to several
times the rated
current) will be
produced (see the next two slides).
62
63
64
iv. Transformer energisation inrush
current (cont.)
It should be pointed out that the
inrush current only appears on the HV
side of the transformer (i.e. it has no
equivalent on the LV side).
Thus, the whole of
the inrush current
will appear as
unbalance to the
transformer current
differential protection
and is not distinguishable from
internal fault current.
65
 Can we use the inrush current to stabilise the current
differential protection during transformer energisation ?

132/11 = k = 12 Nk/1
= (200 x 12)/1
IR 132kV 40MVA 11kV I = 2400/1 Ir - Iy
r
Yd11
IY Iy Iy - Ib

IB Ib - Ir

N/0.577= Ib
200/0.577

B B
B B
B B
B = Bias circuit
Diff Diff Diff
(load bias
= 30%)
66
Can we use the inrush current (which is
present only during transformer
energisation) to stabilise the current
differential protection ?
Before we address this, lets analyse the
waveforms of the inrush currents.
Fourier analysis of the inrush currents
reveals that the currents are rich in
harmonic contents. Further review
shows that second harmonic is always
present in substantial proportion in the
inrush currents. As such, second
harmonic currents can be extracted and
fed to the bias circuit to stabilise the
differential protection during transformer
energisation. 67
68
 Load bias plus second harmonic bias (from inrush
current) are used to stabilise the protection
from operation during transformer energisation
132/11 = k = 12 Nk/1
= (200 x 12)/1
IR 132kV 40MVA 11kV I = 2400/1 Ir - Iy
r
Yd11
IY Iy Iy - Ib

IB Ib - Ir

N/0.577= Ib
200/0.577

B B
B B
B B
B = Bias circuit
(load + 2nd Diff Diff Diff
harmonic
bias)
69
 This finalised current differential protection system is often
called duo-bias transformer current differential protection.

132/11 = k = 12 Nk/1
= (200 x 12)/1
IR 132kV 40MVA 11kV I = 2400/1 Ir - Iy
r
Yd11
IY Iy Iy - Ib

IB Ib - Ir

N/0.577= Ib
200/0.577

B B
B B
B B
B = Bias circuit
(load + 2nd Diff Diff Diff
harmonic
bias)
70
Current differential protection for busbars
Kirchoffs Law : Summation of currents
at a point is always zero
I1
I2
Ii

Expand the point

and form a busbar
I6

I3
I5

I4

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 Ii
71
 Diff

By using CTs of same ratio (say N/1) and

with identical technical specifications, we
can vectorially summate all the currents
entering and leaving a busbar and
establish busbar current differential for
one of the three phases. We can do so
similarly for the other two phases. 72
 Busbar A Busbar B

Diff A

Diff B

1. Each busbar has its own current different busbar protection zone.
2. The two busbar protection zones should overlap in order to
eliminate protection blind spot.

73
1. Each busbar has
its own current Diff
different busbar
protection zone. Diff
2. The four busbar
protection zones
should overlap in
order to
eliminate
protection blind
spot.

Diff

Diff

74
Distance protection for overhead lines
and cables
We learn from our previous discussions
that under normal operating conditions,
the voltage on a line/cable will be the
rated voltage while the current will be
the normal load current.
However, when a fault occurs on the
line/cable, the voltage will dip while the
fault current will increase significantly,
depending on the fault impedance.

75
Voltage waveforms
on healthy circuits

Fault current

Voltage waveforms
on faulted circuit

Thus, we can make use of these changes

in voltage and current in case of fault to
design our distance protection system.
76
Distance protection for overhead lines
and cables Z L

IL = load current

VL = rated voltage

ZF

IF >> IL
VF << VL
Fault
77
Distance protection for overhead lines
and cables
The basic principle
involves the
comparison of the
fault current seen
by the relay with
the voltage at the
relaying point ; by
comparing these
two quantities it is
possible to
measure the
impedance of the
line up to the point
of fault. 78
Distance protection for overhead lines
and cables
The electro-mechanical distance relay
used for illustrating the distance
protection principle is no longer used
nowadays. Instead, modern distance
relays utilise digital comparison
techniques for comparing the voltage
signals from VTs and the current signals
from CTs.
The relay characteristic is a circle called
mho circle. Usually three zones of
protection are employed to achieve local
and remote back-ups on top of the main
protection for the line/cable. 79
Zone 1 : Instantaneous operation (~ 20mS). Normally
covers 80% of the protected line.
Zone 2 : Time-delayed by 0.4 seconds in operation.
Covers 100% of the protected line plus 25%
of the next line. Thus providing back-up
protection for the remote busbar.
Zone 3 : Time delayed by 1 second in operation. Covers
100% of the protected line plus 125% of the
next line. Thus providing local back-up for the
local busbar plus remote back-up for remote
busbars.

Relaying point
Relay
characteristic
angle

80
 The 3-zone distance protection scheme is a non-unit
protection. It is called a plain distance scheme.
Time When distance relays are applied to both ends of a line/
cable, a unit protection scheme can be formed with the aid
of a communication link (e.g. a pilot pair, an optical fibre
or microwave link)

Relaying point

Distance
Zone 1 (20mS) Zone 2
(0.4 seconds) Zone 3
(1 seconds)

81
Distance Protection : Operating times
Z1A , Z2A , Z3A , Z1B , Z2B , Z3B = ~20mS
Acceleration Scheme Send, Receive = ~20mS
T2 = 0.4 second
T3 = 1 second
A Z2A
Z1A (80%) B

F1 Z (80%) F2 F3
1B

Z2B

Z1A Z1B
Trip A Trip B
Z2A Z2B
T2 T2
Z3A Z3B
T3 T3
Z1A Signalling link : Could be a Z1B
Send pilot pair, optical fibre or Send
microwave link
Z2A Z2B
Receive Receive

82
Plain distance scheme
Fault End A End B Overall Fault
Position Clearance Time
F1 Z1A = 20mS Z1B = 20mS 20mS

F2 Z2A + T2 = 0.4 second Z1B = 20mS 0.4 second

F3 Z2A + T2 = 0.4 second Z1B & Z2B cannot see End A & End B
the fault should not trip to
clear the out-zone
fault

Acceleration distance scheme

Fault End A End B Overall Fault
Position Clearance Time
F1 Z1A = 20mS Z1B = 20mS 20mS

F2 Z2A + Receive = 40mS Z1B = 20mS 40mS

F3 Z2A + T2 = 0.4 second Z1B & Z1B cannot see End A & End B
the fault should not trip to
clear the out-zone
fault
83
The acceleration distance scheme works
very satisfactorily for overhead lines and
cables with reasonably large line/cable
impedance (i.e. 80% line/cable
impedance > minimum Zone 1 setting of
the distance relay, which is typically
around 0.25 secondary ohm).
The acceleration distance protection
scheme is extensively adopted by power
supply companies worldwide. It is ideal
for protecting long overhead line or
cable circuits. Apart from furnishing fast
unit protection for the overhead lines/
cables, its Zone 2 and Zone 3 also
provide local and remote back-ups. 84
In metropolitan cities like Hong Kong
and Singapore, the lines and cables for
power delivery networks are usually
quite short. Thus, some of these lines/
cables are with impedance smaller than
the minimum Zone 1 setting.

Thus, we have to design other workable

distance protection schemes for these
circuits for power delivery networks in
metropolitan cities. Lets review the
design of the inhibit distance scheme
which is popularly used for short
lines/cables.
85
Distance Protection : Operating times
Z1A , Z2A , Z3A , Z1B , Z2B , Z3B = ~20mS
Inhibit Scheme Send, Receive = ~20mS
T2 = 0.4 second
T3 = 1 second
A Z2A
Z1A (125%) B

F1 Z (125%) F2
1B

Z2B

Z2A Z2B
Trip A Trip B
T2 T2
Z3A Z3
B
T3 T3
Z1A Signalling link : Could be a Z1B
pilot pair, optical fibre or
Send microwave link Send
Z1A Z1B
Receive Receive

86
Under-frequency load-shedding for
22kV/11kV distribution feeders
Lets consider the case when X G1
generators are running
synchronously on bar (i.e. all
running at the same speed NS) G2

Ns = 120f/p rev. per minute

where f = rated frequency, G3
p = no. of poles

GX

87
 Generator rotor
Emechanical Eelectrical

NS
Ns = 120f/p rev. per minute
where f = rated frequency,
p = no. of poles
For each of the X generators,

Emechanical = Eelectrical + Kinetic energy stored in generator rotor

= Eelectrical + (1/2) x I x 2

where N = x 60 /(2 x (pi))

= Ns when the rotor is running at synchronous speed,
I = Moment of inertia of the generator rotor

88
For all the X generators, we have :
Total mechanical input to X generators
= Total electrical output + Total kinetic energy
from X generators stored in X generators

= Total electrical load + Total kinetic energy

required by customers stored in X generators
Thus,
Emechanical (1) + Emechanical (2) + Emechanical (3) + . + Emechanical (x)
= Total electrical load + (1/2) I(1) 2 + (1/2) I(2) 2
required by customers
+ (1/2) I(3) 2 + . + (1/2) I(x) 2

89
What will happen when G1
one of the generators
fails, or partially fails, G2
say due to some
mechanical problem ? G3

GX

90
Since :

Emechanical (1) + Emechanical (2) + Emechanical (3) + . + Emechanical (x)

= Totalelectrical load required by customers + (1/2) I(1) 2 +
(1/2) I(2) 2 + (1/2) I(3) 2 + . + (1/2) I(x) 2

Hence, if one of the generator mechanical input is lost (say loss

of Emechanical (1) ), we can momentarily supply the same total
electrical load only if is reduced (since increasing of
mechanical input to other generators will required relatively
longer time).

But since N = x 60 /(2 x (pi)) and N = 120f/p, the supply

frequency will drop if nothing is speedily done to reduce the
electrical load.

91
 In order to restore the system frequency to rated
frequency, disconnecting non-essential 11kV and/or
22kV loads in a pre-determined manner* at zone-
substations is required when the mechanical input
cannot meet the electrical demand.
This process is known as under-frequency load-
shedding in power industry.
132/11kV
Z/Tx

22kV/11kV Feeders

* Usually progressively in 6 stages, disconnecting the most

non-essential loads first
92
Under-frequency relays are installed in zone-
substations for continuous monitoring of the system
frequency. When the system frequency drops below
some pre-set value, they will initiate tripping of 11kV
and/or 22kV distribution feeders in stages in a pre-
defined manner so as to restore a balance between
supply and demand.

22kV/11kV Feeders

When the deficiency in

mechanical input is remedied, those 11kV and/or
22kV feeders which were disconnected previously, will
be restored progressively, again in a pre-defined
manner. 93
Trip supply supervision scheme

Do you still remember the following

diagram? What do you know about trip
supply ?
CT signals from
current transformers
Trip local
Voltage signals circuit
from voltage breaker
transformers Protection
relay
DC trip Trip remote
supply/ circuit breaker,
supplies if required

94
Trip supply, which is usually 110V DC, is
for :
i. Providing supply for powering the
protection, control and alarm systems
at a substation;
ii. Providing DC supply to the trip coil(s)
of a circuit breaker for tripping the
breaker for isolating a fault.
Thus, trip supply is indispensable for
ensuring reliability of protection system.
Its healthiness has to be continuously
supervised. A typical trip supply
supervision scheme is shown overleaf.
95
 Essential
AC supply

Charger
DC+ AC/DC DC-

Trip supply supervision relay

Local or/and remote alarm

A typical trip supply supervision scheme

96
 Trip circuit supervision scheme
A trip circuit comprises the protection
relay contact, the circuit breaker trip coil,
the circuit breaker auxiliary contacts,
fuses, links and considerable amount of
circuit wirings.
DC-
DC+ Protection
relay
52a

Protection C.B. C.B.

relay contact auxiliary trip coil
contact

Circuit wirings

97
Trip circuit supervision scheme (cont)

These complications, coupled with the

extreme importance of the trip circuit,
warrant continuous supervision of the
circuit.

A typical scheme is highlighted in the

next slide.

98
Trip circuit supervision scheme (cont)
DC-
DC+
Protection
relay
52a C.B.
trip coil

Protection C.B. auxiliary

relay contact contact
52b
A B
R1 R2

A, B and C are the

elements of the trip
circuit supervision relay

Typical trip circuit supervision scheme Local /remote alarm

99
 A typical trip supply and trip
circuit supervision scheme

S Local /remote alarm

PROTECTION
SUPPLY
Protection
relay
TRIP 52a C.B.
SUPPLY
trip coil

Protection C.B. auxiliary

relay contact contact
52b
DC+ A B
R1 R2 DC-
ALARM
SUPPLY
C

Local /remote alarm

100