Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Environmental Engineering
Instructor
Dr. R. Kommalapati, PE, BCEE
School of PE
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Table of Contents
Part Chapter Topic Page #.
I Water Quality and Treatment 1
1 Water Quality 1
2 Water Treatment Systems 6
3 Coagulation 10
4 Rapid Mixing Tank/Flocculation Tank 12
5 Sedimentation 14
6 Filtration 16
7 Water Softening 17
8 Chlorination 19
ii
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REFERENCES
1. Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 3rd ed., Davis and Cornwell,
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
2. Water Quality, Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, Addison-Wesley, 1985
3. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, Metcalf and Eddy
(Tchobanoglous, Burton and Stensel), McGraw Hill, Inc., 2003
4. Environmental Engineering FE Exam Preparation, B. J. Stuart, Kaplan AEC
Education, 2005
5. Environmental Engineering Reference Manual for PE Exam, 2nd Edition,
Michael R Lindeburg, Professional Publications, Inc, 2003.
6. Environmental Engineering PE License Review, P. J. Parker and B. J. Stuart,
Kaplan AEC Education, 2007
7. Environmental Engineering Problems and solutions, Harry Harbold, Kaplan
AEC Education, 2004
8. Environmental Engineering Practice PE Exams, 2nd ed, R Wane Schneiter,
Professional Publications, Inc, 1999.
9. Civil Engineering Reference Manual for PE Exam, 10th Edition, Michael R
Lindeburg, Professional Publications, Inc, 2006.
10. Practice Problem for the Civil Engineering PE Exam, Michael R Lindeburg,
Professional Publications, Inc, 200?.
11. PE Civil Engineering License Review, 16th ed, D. Newnan, Kaplan AEC
Education, 2005
12. PE Civil Engineering Problems and Solutions, 16th ed, D. Newnan, Kaplan AEC
Education, 2005
13. PE Civil Engineering Sample Exam, Kaplan AEC Education, 2006
iii
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Left Blank
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CHAPTER 1: WATER QUALITY
Little Chemistry
Concentration
Moles of solute = weight of solute (g) / atomic (molecular) weight (AW or
MW) (g/mole)
Molarity (M), mol/L = moles of solute (mol) /1.0 L of solution
Molality (m), mol/kg = moles of solute (mol) /1.0 Kg of solvent
Normality (N), eq/L = equivalents of solute (eq) /1.0 L of solution
Equivalents = weight of solute (g) / Equivalent weight (g/eq)
Equivalent weight (EW) = MW/ z, where z is equal to replaceable
hydrogen atoms or their equivalent and is equal to change in valance for
oxidation reduction reactions (Appendix 22 C - CERM and EERM)
Mass Conc. (mg/l or g/m3) = weight of solute in g or mg / 1.0 L of solution
Parts Per Million (ppm) = mass of solute, g / 106 g of solution
or ppm = concentration (g/m3) /specific gravity of liquid
for dilute aqueous solutions (specific gravity = 1)
Mass concentration as CaCO3 mg/l or g/m3 =
= mg/l of solute * EW CaCO3/ EW of solute
= mg/l of solute*factor from Appendix 22C of CERM &EERM
Conc. Of 1% = 10,000 ppm = 10,000 mg/L
7000 grains = 1 lb
1 grain/gallon = 142.5 lb/MG
Water Ionization
H2O H+ +OH-
Ka,water = Kw (Ion Product of water) = [H+][OH-] = 10-14
also pK = -log[K]
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Total Solids (TS) = [(54.7022- 54.6422) g *1000 mg/g ]/0.1 L = 600 mg/l
Total Volatile Solids (TVS) = (54.7022 54.6842)g *1000 mg/g ]/0.1L = 180 mg/l
Total Fixed Solids (TFS) = (54.6842 54.6422)g *1000 mg/g ]/0.1L = 420 mg/l
It can also be estimated from TFS = TS-TVS = 600-180= 420 mg/l
Dissolved solids can be determined from the difference between total solids and
suspended solids. However, laboratories routinely determine the dissolved solids
also experimentally and verify the accuracy of the results.
2
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Acidity:
Capacity to neutralize bases and is a measure of acids in water. Acidity is measured
by titrating the sample using a standard base solution to raise to a pH of 8.3
Acidity (mg/l as CaCO3) = (Vtitrant, ml Ntitrant/Vsample, ml) 50 g/ eq *1,000 mg/g
Alkalinity
Ability of water to neutralize acids, caused mainly by bicarbonate, carbonate and
hydroxyl ions.
Alkalinity (eq/m3) = bicarbonate(eq/ m3) + carbonate (eq/ m3) + hydroxyl (eq/ m3)
hydrogen (eq/ m3)
For all practical purposes the last two terms can be ignored for natural water
samples. Even carbonate concentrations are very low in the natural pH range thus
leaving mainly bicarbonate as the cause of alkalinity.
Convert alkalinity from eq/m3 into mg/l as CaCO3 by multiplying with 50 (EW of
CaCO3)
Hardness
Caused by any polyvalent cations (mainly Calcium and Magnesium). Expressed as
mg/l as CaCO3. Causes precipitates with soap (forms scum) and reduces the
effectiveness of soap.
Carbonate hardness (also known as temporary hardness) is the hardness associated
with bicarbonate and carbonate ions (alkalinity) and the remaining hardness is
termed non carbonate hardness (permanent hardness) and typically is associated
3
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
with sulfate and chloride. Carbonate hardness can be removed by heating water.
Hardness is removed by lime-soda softening process or ion exchange process
(discussed later). Hardness is measured by titrating with EDTA (standard is chosen
so that 1 ml titrant gives 1 mg/l as CaCO3 hardness)
(i) Note that the sum of cations and anions should be roughly equal (in eq/m3) for a
satisfactory analysis.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) = sum of all the ions in column 2 = 685.52 g/m3
(ii) Alkalinity is caused by the presence of mainly CO3-2 and HCO3- ions (For all
practical purposes the contribution of hydroxyl (OH-) and Hydrogen (H+ ) ions to
alkalinity is negligible for natural waters)
(iii) Total Hardness, TH (add all the cations with a charge of 2 or more)
4
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
If we only include the major ions (Ca+2 and Mg+2), TH = 6.52 (TH does not change
significantly when we ignore other minor ions)
5
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
The typical contaminants found in water and the treatment methods used are listed
in the table below. A typical treatment flow chart for surface water is shown also.
Treatment Methods
Physical Unit Operations
o change in water quality is brought about through the application of physical
forces
o screening, mixing,gas transfer, sedimentation, filtration,etc.
Chemical Unit Operations
o Removal or treatment of contaminants is brought about by the addition of
chemicals or chemical reactions
o precipitation, disinfection, coagulation, oxidation, ion exchange
Biological Unit Operations
o Removal of contaminants is brought about by biological means
o used only for wastewater treatment and not for water treatment
o activated sludge, trickling filter, oxidation ponds, lagoons.etc.
6
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Design parameters
Hydraulic detention time (days)
= volume (m3)/flow rate(m3 /d)
Hydraulic surface loading rate or overflow rate (m3/d/m2)
= flow rate (m3/d) /surface area (m2)
Mass surface loading rate (kg/day/ m2)
= mass of material applied (kg/d) / surface area (m2)
Mass per volume loading rate (kg/day/ m3)
= mass of material applied (kg/d) / volume (m3)
Mass per mass loading rate (kg/day/kg)
= mass of material applied (kg/d) /mass of material in system (kg)
7
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8
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9
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
CHAPTER 3: COAGULATION
Chemical Reactions
Consists of adding a floc forming chemical reagent to a water or wastewater to
enmesh or combine with non-settleable colloidal solids and slow settling SS to
produce a rapid settling floc (which is then removed by sedimentation)
Coagulation
o the addition and rapid mixing of a coagulant, the resulting destabilization of
the colloidal and fine SS and the initial aggregation of the destabilized
particles
Flocculation
o the slow stirring or gentle agitation to aggregate the destabilized particles and
form a rapid settling floc
Each mole of alum uses 6 moles of alkalinity (HCO-3) and produces 2 moles of
aluminum hydroxide (solid precipitate) and 6 moles of CO2 which decreases the ph
However due to the presence of alkalinity pH wont lower drastically
If there is not enough alkalinity, lime (either as CaO or Ca(OH)2 ) or soda ash
(Na2CO3) can be added to prevent pH from lowering due to the coagulation reaction.
Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 X H 2 O 3Ca(OH) 2 2 Al (OH ) 3 ( s ) X H 2 O 3CaSO 4
10
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Iron Coagulation
Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 .xH 2 O HCO 3- 2Fe(OH)3 (s) xH 2 O 3SO 24-
FeCl3 .xH 2 O HCO 3- Fe(OH)3 (s) xH 2 O 3Cl -
Coagulant Dose
lbm L
Dmg / L QMGD (8.345 )
Dmg / L QML / day [SI] mg .MG [US]
FKg / day FLb / day
PG PG
Ans:
(a) Given that purity, P = 87% = 0.87 and assume G = fractional availability = 100% =1
lbm L mg lbm L
Dmg / L QMGD (8.345 ) (7 )(2.5MGD)(8.345 )
mg.MG L mg.MG
Flbm / day 167.9 lbm / day
PG (0.87)(1.0)
Amount of alum needed per year = 167.9 lb/day *365 day/year *ton/2000lb
= 30.6 tons/year
alum cost = 30.6*$234 = $7,168/year
11
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
For the chemical reactions to occur, the chemicals must be mixed with water
for both coagulation and softening we need mixing of chemical with water
Mixing or rapid mixing is the process in which chemicals are quickly and uniformly
dispersed in water (instantaneously)
for coagulation and softening processes precipitates form during the mixing
the precipitates formed must be brought into contact with one another and colloids
so that they can agglomerate and form larger particles called flocs - this process is
called flocculation and is accomplished by slow, gentle mixing (rapid mixing may
break up the flocs)
Degree of mixing is measured by velocity gradient G (amount of shear taking
place). Higher the G, the more violent the mixing
Design Criteria
Rapid Mix
Volume = Flow rate (Q)*detention time
Detention is in the oder of seconds 30-120 seconds
Mixing basin is tyrpically a cube
Flocculation
Most important factor effecting particle removal efficiency
objective - to bring particles into contact so that they will collide, stick together and
grow to a size that will readily settle
enough mixing to provide contact and prevent settling in the flocculation basin but
not too much to shear the floc particles making the floc small and dispersed
Velocity gradient, G must be controlled in narrow range
heavier the floc and SS Conc. the more mixing (high G)
Softening floc is heavier and need more mixing (high G)
Detention time 30 minutes
Flow through velocity = 0.5 to 1.5 fps
Paddle area = 10 to 25% of tank c/s area
G, mean velocity gradient = 5 to 100 /sec
Gt (also Gt) = 30,000 150,000
12
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Power requirement
P
G= or P = G2V
V
P = power, N.m/s (lb-ft/sec), G = velocity gradient (s-1),
= dynamic viscosity of water, N.s/m2 (lb-s/ft2)
13
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
CHAPTER 5: SEDIMENTATION
Types of Sedimentation
Type I
o Particles that settle discretely (settle as individual particles)
o sand, grit
o Pre-sedimentation for sand prior to coagulation
Type II
o Particles that flocculate during sedimentation
o Size constantly changing, thus settling velocity
o Generally settling velocity increasing
o Alum or Iron coagulation, in primary sedimentation
Type III or zone sedimentation
o Particles or at high conc. (>1000 mg/l)
o Particle settle as a mass and a distinct clear zone and sludge zone are
present
o Lime softening sedimentation, activated sludge sedimentation and sludge
thickeners
Design Criteria
Surface Loading rate (flow rate/surface area, gpd/ft2 )= 600-1000 for Rectangular
basins and 500-750 for Circular basins
Detention time (Volume /Flow rate) = 2 to 6 hours
Weir loading ( flow rate/length of weir) = 15,000 -20,000 gpd/ft
Free Board = 1- 2ft, Depth = 8-18 ft
Width 30-50 ft and length 100-200 ft with a L:W of 4:1 for rectangular basins and
50-100 ft diameter for circular tanks
14
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Ans:
(a) As = settling zone surface area, ft2 Q = flow rate = 8,000,000 gal/d
q0 = overflow rate =650 gpd/ft2
Q 8 x10 6
Surface area of settling tank As = = 12307 ft2
qo 650
As = L w and Given L = 4 w
Since 3 tanks are used, As per tank = 12307 / 3 = 4102 ft2 = LW= (4W)W = 4W2
W=32ft L = 4W = 128 ft Thus, L = 128 ft and w = 32 ft
Q
(b) Overflow weir length Lw tan k
qw
Lw = overflow weir length (ft) qw = weir overflow rate (gpd//ft)
Q/tank = flow rate per tank (gpd) = 8MGD/3 = 2.67 MGD
Q
tan k 2.67 x10 6 gpd
Lw = = 133.4 ft
qw 20000 gpd / ft
15
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
CHAPTER 6: FILTRATION
Design Criteria
Filtration rate = 2 gpm/ft2 for sand filters and 4 gpm/ft2 for dual media filters
Minimum Number = 4 for Q > 100 gpm and 2 for Q< 100 gpm
Filter design based on one unit backwashing
L:W ratio is1.3 and max size of filter is 2100 ft2
Filter depth should be 8-10 ft.
Backwash rate = 12-36 inches per min rise rate (10-20 gpm/ft2)
Through-put = 350-3500 gpm
Total of 10 filter units (but design is based on 9 filters being in operation and 1 in
backwashing). In a problem you will be trying to match this with the answer
L:W ratio is 1.3 so LW = 1.3WxW = 1.3W2 = 243 --- this gives W = 13.7 ft and L
= 17.8 ft.
Backwash Water
16
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Classification of Hardness
Hardness Classification
(mg/L as CaCO3)
0 to 60 Soft
61 to 120 moderately hard
121 to 180 Hard
181 to 350 very hard
> 350 saline; brackish
Some Points
Hardness removal using lime and soda is based on the solubility reactions of
calcium carbonate, CaCO3 and magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
Precipitate Ca+2 as CaCO3 and Mg+2 as Mg(OH)2
pH must be raised to 10.3 for Ca+2 removal and to about 11 for Mg+2 removal
Remove Ca-CH, Mg-CH and Ca-NCH and Mg-NCH in that order because the cost
of removal increases in the same order
Leave as much Mg hardness as possible and as much NCH as possible, but Mg
Conc. of above 40 mg/l as CaCO3 causes problems
It is a common practice to use a minimum of 20 mg/l as CaCO3 of excess lime to
achieve reasonable removal
18
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
CHAPTER 8: CHLORINATION
Chemical Reaction of Chlorination
(1) Breakpoint Chlorination
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
(4) CT Concept
Microorganism kill by disinfectants is assumed to follow the CT concept (product of
conc.*contact time) and is used in surface water treatment rule (SWTR)
EPA developed tables of required CT values for free chlorine under SWTR. The
two classes of organisms considered in disinfection are Giardia and viruses. Design
criteria from SWTR states that a 4 log removal of viruses and 3 log removal of
Giardia is required. Typical removals obtained with various water treatment
methods and additional removals required are listed below. Please see practice
problem on this topic in the last section.
20
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
PART II WASTEWATER
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW
The wastewater treatment processes that we design mimic the processes that occur
in the nature (for example processes that occur in a flowing river). The designed
processes increase the rate of removal and control the process variables so that the
effluent standards can be met. Just like the water solids we need to deal with
wastewater solids also. The wastewater solids are classified into inorganic or fixed
solids and organic or volatile solids. The inorganic or fixed solids are removed
through the screening and sedimentation during the primary sedimentation and the
organic or volatile solids are stabilized through biochemical oxidation (activated
sludge/trickling filter/other) and removed through sedimentation or clarification
(secondary). The solids removed are further treated by a process called sludge
digestion (which is mostly anaerobic (containing no oxygen)). Please refer to
following Figure and Table for various treatment units included in the typical
wastewater treatment.
Primary Treatment: to remove the pollutants that float or settle. Typically 60% of
suspended solids and 35% of BOD5 are removed. At one time this was the only
treatment used by many cities. Now federal law requires the municipalities to
provide secondary treatment.
Secondary Treatment: to remove soluble BOD that escapes the primary treatment
and to provide added removal of suspended solids. Biological processes (activated
sludge (aeration) or trickling filter are the most common one chosen at larger
plants). Typically same treatment is provided in the receiving waters but these
treatment processes speed up the breakdown of degradable organic pollutants.
Typically more than 85% of BOD and suspended solids are removed. However, it
does not remove significant amounts of nitrogen, phosphorous or heavy metals or
pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Typical Standards: 20 mg/l BOD5, 20 mg/l
suspended solids (for discharges to rivers flowing south and flows into Gulf of
Mexico).
22
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Ten States Standards (TSS) specifies that new sanitary sewers should be designed
for an average flow of 100 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) or 380 Lpcd). Refer to
Appendix 29A of CERM or Appendix 26A of EERM for Ten States Standards)
Organic loading of a treatment unit is expressed in terms of pounds (kg) of BOD per
day or pounds (or kg) of solids per day. Typical values for communities that use
garbage disposals are 0.24 lbm (110g) of suspended solids and 0.17 to 0.2 lbm (77
to 90 g) of BOD per person per day. The average BOD of domestic wastewater is
0.2 lbm (90 g) per capita per day.
Table 28.4 in the PE CERM or Table 25.4 in EERM for Typical Wastewater
Characteristics
Total Suspended Solids = 100 350 mg/L (200 mg/l is the typical value)
33% of the total solids (ST) are suspended (60% of these suspended solids are
settleable and 40% are colloidal) and 67% are dissolved.
Total Solids (ST) = Fixed or Inorganic Solids (SF or SI) + Organic or Volatile Solids
(SV or SO)
The solids removed during primary and secondary treatment are referred to as
sludge (high solids concentration). Refer to Sludge chapter in the following pages.
24
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Ans
(a) The volume of 896, 000 lb of wastewater is ?
896,000 lbs/ 8.345 lbs/gal = 107,370 gallons
25
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Where x is the ratio of seed in the sample bottle to that in the blank
BODt BODu (1 e kt ) (most commonly used expression)
BODt BODu (1 10 K )t ) (Eq 25.29 of EERM or 28.29 of CERM -usually will say
d
explicitly)
Where k = 2.303Kd
Temperature correction kT = k20 T-20 or KT = K20 T-20
= 1.135 for temps 4-20C and = 1.056 for temps 20-30C (or default value
suggested is 1.047)
26
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Ans:
mg mg
9.1 5.2
BOD = L L 78 mg/L
15 mL
300 mL
mg
78
BODt L
(b) BODu = = = 90.2 mg/L
1 e k t
1
1 e 0.40 d .5 d
27
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
In a grit chamber, the wastewater is slowed, allowing the grit to settle out but let the
lighter organic solids flow through. Horizontal flow grit chambers are designed to
have flow velocity of 1 ft/sec (0.3 m/sec). Typical detention time is 2 -5 min at peak
flow with 3 min being the most common value used (see Table 26.9 of EERM and
29.9 of CERM).
Primary settling follows the bar screens and grit chamber and is designed to remove
wastewater inorganic solids (though some organic solids are also removed).
Primary clarifiers are designed based on detention time (1.5 -2.5 hrs, 2 hrs typical),
overflow rate ( 800-1200 gal/ft2-d (1000 typical) for average flow and 2000 -3000
gal/ft2-d (2500 typical) for peak flow) and weir loading rate (10,000-40,000 gal/ft-d,
20,000 typical). For more details see Table 26.10 Appendix 26A of EERM or 29.10
and Appendix 29A of CERM).
Secondary clarifiers are also designed based on detention time (1.5 -2 hrs, 2 hrs
typical), overflow rate (600- 800 gal/ft2-d (700 typical) for average flow and 1,000 -
1,800 gal/ft2-d (1500 typical) for peak flow) and weir loading rate ( 10,000-40,000,
gal/ft-d (20,000 typical).
Overflow rate (OFR) or Hydraulic loading rate = Flow rate/ Area = ft3/hr-ft2
Solids Loading (SL) = Mass of solids per unit time/Surface Area = lb/day-ft2
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
(c) If the clarifier are 40% efficient in removing the solids. How many pounds of
solids are produced per clarifier?
(0.4)(2,780) = 1,112lbs
(d) How many total pounds of waste are removed by all 6 clarifiers?
(6)(1,112) = 6,672 lbs
(e) What is the suspended solids concentration of the wastewater leaving the
clarifier?
40% of 200 mg/l solids are removed in the clarifier so concentration of solids
left = 0.6*200 = 120 mg/l
(g) What is the surface loading rate (gpd/ft2) for each clarifier?
(1,670,000 gpd)/(1,256 ft2) = 1,329 gpd/ ft2
The incoming waste to the activated sludge basin is composed of inorganic and
organic solids. The organic portion of the incoming waste is responsible for the
BOD and it represents the Food (F) for the microorganisms in the activated sludge
basin.
The solids in the activated sludge basin are called mixed liquor suspended solids
(MLSS). These solids are composed of an organic (MLVSS) and an inorganic part
(MLFSS). The MLVSS is often considered to represent the microorganisms in the
activated sludge basin. Refer to Table 27.1 of EERM or 30.1 of CERM for the
characteristics.
The stabilized organic solids are removed in the secondary sedimentation basin.
Most of stabilized solids are returned or recycled to the activated sludge basin. Part
of the stabilized solids are wasted each day.
The wastewater from the aeration tank then flows over the secondary sedimentation
basin (where the solids have been removed) and to the disinfection basin and then
discharged to the receiving stream.
There are several equations that must be mastered in the design of the activated
sludge process using the BOD equations. The equation number used here is
matched with that in CERM for easy reference the same equations in EERM are
with a prefix of 27 as opposed to 30. These Equations must be mastered to design an
activated sludge process.
M = Va X 30.2
Va is volume of the aeration tank and X is concentration of microorganisms in the
aeration tank
(a) F/M ratio (based on VSS)
30
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
S O , mg / L Qo , MGD S O , mg / L
F:M = = 30.3
Va , MG X mg / L days X mg / L
(b) F/M ratio (based on TSS)
S O , mg / L Qo , MGD
F:M = = S O , mg / L 30.4
Va , MG MLSS mg / L
days MLSS mg / L
hydraulic retention time
Sludge age or Mean Cell Residence Time (typical values 6-15 days)
Va X
c 30.5
Qe X e Qw X r
Qe effluent flow, Xe Suspended (bio) solids in the effluent, Qw wasted flow and Xr
concentration of solids in the return sludge
The effluent BOD5 leaving the activated sludge plant consists of BOD5 (soluble) and
also that of the suspended solids in the effluent (fraction G)
BOD removal (process) efficiency (90- 95%) is calculated using the soluble BOD5
of the effluent.
SO S
BOD 30.11
SO
31
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Though there are plug flow reactor (PFR) and continuous flow stirred tank reactors
(CSTR or CFSTR) reactor models that could be used in the design. The CSTR
model is more commonly used. Only formulas for CSTR are discussed below.
Wastage Qw, X
Settling Tank Vs
Aeration Tank
Va, X
Qo, So Q-Qw, S, Xe
Qr, S, Xr
Qw, Xr
Wastage can be done either from here or above (at dotted line)
Based on the growth kinetics and mass balance, the effluent substrate concentration
(soluble BODs) and the reactor volume (for a CSTR only) are given by
K s (1 k d c )
S 30.18
c ( m k d ) 1
c QoY ( S o S ))
Va Qo 30.19
X (1 k d c )
32
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Hydraulic retention time when (i) only the aeration tank is considered and (ii) the
system (i.e. the aeration tank and the secondary clarifier are considered together are
given by
Va
(aeration tank only) 30.20
Qo
Va V s
(aeration tank and the secondary clarifier are considered) 30.21
Qo
The average concentration of microorganisms, X in the aeration tank is
c
Y ( S o S ))
X 30.22
(1 k d c )
Y
The observed yield is Yobs 30.23
(1 k d c )
A portion of the biomass produced (activated sludge) must be wasted each day
Qw,m3 / day X r ,mg / L Yobs Qo ( S o S ))
Px ,kg / day 30.24
1000 g / kg 1000 g / kg )
Cell wastage rate (Qw) and the solids concentration in the return sludge line are used
in calculating the mean cell residence time (c) as given in eq 30.5
However, mass of cells in the effluent are so small compared to those in the waste
line that they are sometimes ignored and Eq 30.5 is modified to
Va X
c 30.27
QwX r
In some cases wastage is done directly from the aeration tank (Xr =X), then
Va
c 30.28
Qw
Return rate or Recycle Ratio (R, typical 0.2 to 0.3)
R = Qr/Qo 30.41
Qr X
r 30.43
Qo Qr X
Qr Vsettled ,mL / L
30.44
Qo Qr 1000mL / L
Vsettled , mL / L
R 30.45
1000mL / L Vsettled ,mL / L
33
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Ans:
Average flow rate = (100 gal/capita-day)(100.000pop)(106gal/Mgal)=10 Mgal/day
The size of the aeration basin may be determined based on a typical value for
hydraulic residence time of 6 hr for a conventional activated sludge process.
Ans:
The wasted sludge mass is QwXu = 34 kg/d
(Qw wasted solid flow rate, m3/d and Xu wasted solids concentration, mg/L)
VX
c mean cell residence time =
QwXu
(V -reactor volume, m3 and X is biomass concentration in reactor, mg/L)
m3 mg L kg
(18925 )(247 )(1000 3 )(10 6 )
F QS o d L m mg
13.7 d 1
M VX 340kg
34
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Ans:
1000Vsettled , mL / L
(a) From eq 30.7, SVI =
X mg / L
(1000mg / g )(250ml / L)
= 109mL / g
2300mg / L
Vsettled , mL / L 250mL
(b) From Eq 30.45, R = = 0.33
1000 Vsettled , mL / L 1000mL 250mL
35
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
The trickling filter design is based on hydraulic loading and solids loading.
Trickling filters can remove 70-90% of the suspended solids and 65-85% of the
BOD and 70-95% of the bacteria. These numbers vary little bit for standard rate and
high rate filters (little lower for high rate filters).
Low rate filters (also known as standard rate filters) use a depth of 6 ft. High rate
filters (which are more common) uses a depth of 3-6 ft only. Much of the filter
discharge is re-circulated.
= (Qw+Qr)/A = (1+R)Qw/A
When hydraulic loading is calculated, recirculation flow rate must be added to the
original flow rate. When calculating the solids loading however, do not include
solids in the recirculation wastewater.
The National Research Council (NRC) Equations are used in the design of Trickling
filters.
36
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Sin is BOD entering the TF (same as the effluent of the primary settling tank)
Se is the BOD of the trickling filter effluent
1
E or
LBOD lbm / day
1 0.0085
Vac ft F
F is the effective number of passes of the organic material through a filter and
depends on recirculation ratio (R) and weighing factor(w) which is usually 0.1
1 R
F
(1 wR) 2
First Stage
1
E1 or1
LBOD lbm / day
1 0.0085
Vac ft F
Second Stage
1
E 2 or 2
0.0085 L` BOD lbm / day
1
1 E1 V ' ac ft F
37
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Formula:
1
1 R E or
F L lbm / day
(1 0.1R) 2 1 0.0085 BOD
Vac ft F
E = BOD removal efficiency (in fraction) in trickling filter;
LBOD = BOD loading to trickling filter (lb/day)
V = volume of filter media (acre-ft) for trickling filter
F = recirculation factor, R = recirculation ratio
LBOD = TF influent BOD load (Lb/d) = 130 mg/L x 0.5 MGD x 8.34 = 542.1 lb/day
Solid waste is a generic term used to describe the things we throw away.
Solid waste disposal creates a problem primarily in highly populated areas. In
general, the more concentrated the population, the greater the problem becomes,
although some very populated areas have developed creative solutions to
minimize the problems.
Social customs result in significant variations in the mass of waste generated.
Residential locations (including multifamily) generate approximately 55-65% of
all MSW (municipal solid waste).
Collection Methods
Curbside or alley pickup
Set-out, set-back collection
Backyard pickup or tote barrel method
39
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Waste Reduction
o Source Reduction
o Reuse
o Recycle
Landfill Consideration
o Site Selection
o Site Preparation
o Equipment
o Operation
o Environmental Considerations
o Leachate
o Landfill Design
o Completed Sanitary Landfills
Typical Landfill
40
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Leachate
Produced by decomposition of waste
Contains Ammonia, Organic Material (COD/BOD), Halogenated hydrocarbons,
Heavy metals, Salts (sodium chloride, Carbonate, Sulfate)
Composting
Is the controlled decomposition of organic materials, such as leaves, grass, and
food scraps, by microorganisms.
Crumbly earthy-smelling, soil-like material containing both carbon and nitrogen
sources.
Organic materials broken down by invertebrates (Ex: mites, millipedes, beetles,
earthworms, slugs and snails).
Need adequate moisture and oxygen to degrade organic material.
Microbes create heat and cook the compost. (25 & 55 Celsius)
More than 67% of major solid waste in the U.S. can be composted.
Common Method is Aerated windrows
the material is left to decompose while enclosed in a temperature and
moisture controlled chamber.
41
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Combustion
A chemical reaction in which the elements in fuel oxidize in presence of excess
oxygen
C CO2, H H2O, S SOx, N NOx
Reactions are a function of Oxygen, Time, Temperature, and Turbulence
Higher Temps means Higher NOx Emissions
As temp increases, volatile materials burn off into gas, then organic components
crack and form gas, fixed carbon remains
At 700C, carbon is ignited to achieve burn out
Heating Value of Waste is measure in kJ/kg and determined experimentally
using a bomb calorimeter
Incinerators
Conventional (Mass-Fired) Incineration
o most common form of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration
o can accept refuse that has little pretreatment other than the removal of
oversized items (i.e. kitchen stoves, mattresses)
o auxiliary fuel is provided for the initial drying stages
o electrostatic precipitators control the air pollution given off
o 10% of the material incinerated remains and is carried to a landfill
Fluidized-Bed Incinerators
o sand is heated to 800C by oil or gas and blown around (fluidized) by a blower
that sends air from bottom upward
o heated fluidized sand hits sludge, breaks it apart, and burns it
o glass and metals must be removed from refuse to incinerated
o able to burn wastes of widely variable moisture and heat content (i.e. paper
and wood)
o very efficient and emissions are low
42
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Modular Incinerators
o prefabricated units with capacities of 4.5 to 107 tons of solid waste/day
o most use a system involving two combustion chambers
o some units employ additional air pollution control equipment and control
emissions as effectively as mass-burn facilities
o many units are being closed due to expenses from upgrading thus interest in
modular incinerators is decreasing
Important aspects of solid waste management are collection, transfer station (if
needed) and disposal (landfill (including recovery of gases for energy) or
incineration and recovery of energy)
43
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Ans:
(a)
Step 1. Waste Volume Collected
50 tucks * 16 yd3/load * 8 loads/wk * 52wk/yr = 332,800 yd3/yr
(b)
Step 1. Recycling Volume
199,680,000 lb * 0.25 = 49,920,000 lb/yr recycled material
199,680,000 - 49,920,000 = 149,760,000 lb/yr to the landfill
Step 2. Volume that would have been occupied by the recycled material will
the savings (remember the compacted density in the landfill is 1000
lb/yd3)
49,920,000lb
49,920 yd 3 / yr
1,000lb / yd 3
44
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Ans
Assume that a 100 kg sample of the waste for convenience in calculations. Although
the number of residents and the generation rate can be used to calculate the total
daily mass, it will not affect the waste density result
Col 2/Col 3
Paper 31 85 0.365
Garden 29 105 0.276
Food 10 290 0.034
Cardboard 9 50 0.18
Wood 8 240 0.033
Plastic 7 65 0.108
misc. 6 480 0.013
100 1
45
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
It requires 2 min to empty each dumpster, and travel time between dumpsters
requires an average of 6 min. Filled trucks dump at a centrally located transfer
station, requiring a round trip including dumping time of 38 min from the end of one
route to the beginning of the next. The trucks are parked at the transfer station at the
end of each 8 hr work day.
How many dumpsters can one truck empty in a single day?
Ans:
The number of dumpsters per load is
yd 3 lbm
8 1200 3
load yd
= 9.6 dumpsters / load
yd 3
1000lbm
3 3
dumpster 3 yd
The time required per load is
min dumpsters 6 min min
2 9 * 8 38 = 104 min/load
dumpster load dumpter to dumpster load
The time available for collection in a single day is
hr min
8 60 480 min/ day
day hr
min
480
day
The number of loads per day is = 4.62 loads/day
min
104
load
dumpsters loads
The number of dumpsters emptied in a single day is 9 4 =36
load day
46
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Hint: Be careful applying the cover-to-fill ratio and distinguishing between waste
landfilled and the waste recycled
Ans:
The landfill volume (trapezoid)= (b1 +b2)*h
ft 3 ft 3 ft 3
The annual landfill total volume is 5.4 x106 + 1.2 x106 = 6.6 x106
yr yr yr
1.4 x108 ft 3
The landfill operating life is 3
= 21 yr
6 ft
6.6 x10
yr
47
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Hazardous Waste
o any waste or combination of waste that poses a substantial danger now or future
to humans, plants, and animals without special precautions.
o there are cases where waste has been declared safe or non-hazardous, but years
later cause a lot of hazardous problems
o Waste material is considered to be hazardous if it is on the EPA developed lists
(F, K, P, U, etc.) or if it exhibits any of the following:
Ignitability
is a liquid with flash point <60oC (some exceptions)
Not a liquid and capable of spontaneous and sustained combustion under
normal conditions
Ignitable compressed gas (DOT regulations)
is an oxidizer (DOT regulations)
Corrosivity
Is aqueous and has a pH less than 2 or greater than 12.5
Is liquid and corrodes steel at a rate greater than 0.25 per year at a test
temperature of 55oc
Reactivity
Undergoes violent Change w/o detonating
reacts violently with water
Forms potentially explosive mixtures with water
generates toxic gases, vapors or fumes when mixed with water
contains cyanide or sulfide and generates toxic gases, vapors or fumes
capable of detonation if heated under confinement
capable of detonation at std. Temp and Pr.
Is listed by DOT as a Class A or Class B explosive
Toxic characteristics
From the results of either
Extraction Procedure(EP) toxicity (prior to March 1990) or Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)
must have concentrations less than 100 times Primary Drinking water
Standards (PWDS) or is classified as hazardous
48
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49
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52
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Definition
.may be defined as the presence in the outdoor and/or indoor atmosphere of
one or more contaminants or combinations thereof in such quantities and of such
duration as may be or may tend to be injurious to human, plant, or animal life or
property or which unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of
life or property or the conduct of business
Concentration of Pollutants
It is common to express pollutant conc. in the air as parts per million by
volume(ppmv) - 0.0001% by volume = 1 ppmv
Similarly we can define ppmw
Mass conc.
o Micrograms/cubic meter (g/m3)
53
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
C (g/m3) = (ppmv*MW*103)/24.5
This equation is good for P = 1 atm and T = 25C
If pressure and temp are different, then a new constants should be used
o For example when P = 1 atm and T =0C or 273K, the constant is 22.4
o Constant at Other temps can be obtained using
o T P
22.41 * actual std
Pactual Tstd
o Other units
ppb, pphm, ppt
Composition of Air
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Dr. R. Kommalapati, Ph.D., PE, BCEE FE-Civil(Environmental) Notes
Clean Air Act and its major amendments provide the regulations related to air
quality in the United States.
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