Chapter 21

Pavement Management
21-1
What is meant by the term pavement management? Describe three strategies used by
public agencies to develop restoration and rehabilitation programs.

Pavement management refers to the various strategies that can be used to select a
program for pavement restoration. Three strategies used by public agencies to
develop programs include: a squeaky wheel approach in which projects attracting
the greatest attention are selected; a program in which all roads are repaired on a
regular schedule regardless of relative project costs; and a program in which
minimum standards are set and a program of priorities established within budget
limitations.

21-2
What are the three principal uses for pavement condition data?

The three principal uses for pavement condition data are: to establish project
priorities; establish rehabilitation options; and forecast performance.

21-3
What is the difference between PSI and PSR?

PSI (present serviceability index) is a value for pavement condition determined as a

surrogate for PSR (present serviceability rating) and is based on physical
measurements. PSR is a number grade given to a pavement section based on its
ability to serve traffic. It is established by observation and requires judgment by
trained personnel. Therefore, PSR is subjective, while PSI is objective.

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

21-4
Draw a sketch showing the relationship between pavement condition (expressed as
PSI) and time for a service life of 20 years, if the PSI values range from 4.5 to 2.5 in a
six year period, and then the pavement is resurfaced such that the PSI is increased to
4.0. After another 6 years, the PSI has reached 2.0. With rehabilitation, PSI is
increased to 4.5. At the end of its service life the PSI value is 3.4.

The following sketch depicts the relationship between pavement condition (PSI)
and time for a service life of 20 years using the data supplied.

21-5
Describe the four characteristics of pavement condition used to evaluate whether a
pavement should be rehabilitated, and if so, determine the appropriate treatment.

The four characteristics of pavement condition used to evaluate whether a

pavement should be rehabilitated are:
Pavement Roughness is a measurement of the extent to which a road surface
deviates from a plane.
Pavement Distress refers to the condition of a pavement in terms of its
general appearance. Distress is a combination of fractured, distorted, or
disintegrated pavement.
Pavement Deflection refers to the structural adequacy of a pavement
section. Tests may be dynamic, static, or destructive.
Skid Resistance describes the effectiveness of a pavement to prevent or
reduce skid-related crashes.

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 Chapter 21: Pavement Management

21-6
A given pavement rating method uses six distress types to establish the DR. These
are: corrugation, alligator cracking, raveling, longitudinal cracking, rutting, and
patching. For a section of highway, the number of points assigned to each category
were 5, 3, 3, 3, 4, and 3. If the weighting factors are 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, and 1.5, respectively,
determine the DR for the section.

Distress rating (DR) can be calculated using Equation 21.1,

DR = 100 (di wi)
DR = 100 [(5)(1) + (3)(1) + (3)(1) + (3)(1) + (4)(2) + (3)(1.5)]
DR = 100 26.5
DR = 73.5
Therefore, the DR for this pavement section is 73.5.

21-7
What are the problems with distress surveys, and how can such problems be solved?

One of the major problems with distress surveys is the variability in results due to
the subjective procedures used, and the concerns about the safety of pavement
surveyors and the hazards associated with their being on the road. The best solution
lies in the use of automated techniques for evaluating distress. This would remove
the survey crew from the hazardous road conditions, and allow for more consistent
results.
Other sources of error are variations in the condition of the highway
segment observed, changes in evaluation procedure, and changes in observed
location from year to year. Some of these variations can be minimized by using the
same pavement location each year by observing pavement condition at regular
intervals of about one mile.

21-8
How are computers used in pavement management?

Computer vision is an area of artificial intelligence (AI) research that involves the
use of sensors and computers to emulate human vision. As applied to pavement
management, the objective is to develop an automated approach capable of
identifying the type, severity, and extent of pavement distresses. The process
generally involves the following four basic steps: image acquisition, image
digitization, image processing, and pattern recognition.
For pavement management, the image is usually captured using a video
camera. Digitization then creates a numerical representation of the image (digitized
image) suitable for computer processing in the form of an array of numbers where
the integer value of each element in the array represents the color or the gray tone
of the corresponding area in the original image. Values range from 0, representing

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

black, to 255, representing white. The cracked region will have low values due to
crack shadows being much darker than the surrounding background.
The image processing step seeks to extract the different distresses from the
background. The image is first transformed into what is known as a binary
image, where the distresses are indicated by black pixels and the background by
white. Algorithms are also applied to clean up the image and remove the noise.
Counting the number of black pixels will thus yield an idea of the distressed area.
Finally, the pattern recognition step classifies the distress in a pavement surface
image as a particular type of distress.

21-9
Describe the methods used to determine static and dynamic deflection of pavements.
To what extent are these tests used in pavement rehabilitation management?

The methods used to determine the static and dynamic deflection of pavements are
measurement of static deflections (Benkelman Beam), and measurement of
dynamic or repeated loads (Dynaflect). These methods are rarely used to evaluate
pavement condition, but deflection data are used for design purposes and to
develop strategies.

21-10
A 18 kN load is placed on two tires, which are then locked in place. A force of 9.4 kN
is necessary to cause the trailer to move at a speed of 32 km/h. Determine the value of
the skid number. If treaded tires were used, characterize the pavement type.

First, calculate the skid number using Equations 21.2 and 21.3,
SK = 100 (L / N)
SK = 100 (9.4 / 18) = 52.2
Therefore, the skid number would be 52.2. Based on the skid number determined
above and Figure 21.13, the pavement can be characterized as having a surface type
(5), coarse-textured and gritty.

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 Chapter 21: Pavement Management

21-11
The PMS database has accumulated information regarding the performance of a
pavement section before being overlaid as well as the performance of the overlay. The
following data were recorded. Develop a linear prediction model (PCR = a + b Age)
for the two cases. If a criterion was established that maintenance or rehabilitation
should occur when the PCR reaches a value of 81, when should such actions take
place in the two cases?

Before Overlay Overlay Performance

PCR Age (yr) PCR Age (yr)
100 0.5 98 0.5
98 1.5 96 1.5
94 3.5 92 3.5
91 4.5 86 5.5
89 5.5 83 6.5
86 6.5 80 7.5
83 8.0

Using regression analysis, the prediction model for the pavement section before
being overlaid is:
PCR = 101.47 2.31(AGE) (with an R2 = 0.997)

Using regression analysis, the prediction model for the overlay is:
PCR = 100.96 2.72(AGE) (with an R2 = 0.975)

Therefore, the original pavement section will reach a PCR value of 81 at age:
81 = 101.47 2.31(AGE)
AGE = (101.47 81) / 2.31
AGE = 8.9 years

The overlay will reach a PCR value of 81 after:

81 = 100.96 2.72(AGE)
AGE = (100.96 81) / 2.72
AGE = 7.3 years

The first action should take place after 8.9 years for the original section, and after
7.3 years for the overlay.

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

21-12
An agency uses the following formula to determine pavement condition rating:
PCR = 95.6 5.51 (5.0-ROUGH) 1.59 LNALL 0.221 AVGOUT 0.1632 LONG
0.8496 TRAN

where:
ROUGH = roughness measured by present serviceability rating (PSR), scale of
0 to 5
LNALL = natural logarithm of (5.3333 times of alligator cracking, m per km)
AVGOUT = outer wheel path rutting (all locations averaged), 0.25 mm
LONG = longitudinal cracking, m per km
TRAN = transverse cracking, number of cracks per kilometer

And, present serviceability rating is determined as:

PSR = 5e .0051118IRI 0.0016027
A pavement section has the following distress data:
IRI = 1667 mm/km
Alligator cracking = 20.625 m/km
Average rutting = 5 mm
Longitudinal cracks = 24.375 m/km
Transverse cracks = 7.5/km

Determine the current PCR for this section. Then, assume a new roughness
measurement is expected soon. If the PCR falls below 60, the section will be scheduled
for rehabilitation. Determine the new IRI value that will trigger the rehabilitation.

First, determine PSR, IRI = 1667 mm/km

PSR = 2.92
Using the PCR equation as shown above,
PCR = 95.6 5.51(5.0 2.92) 1.59Ln(5.33 20.625) 0.221(20)
0.1632(24.375) 0.8496(7.5)
= 95.6 11.46 7.47 4.42 3.98 6.37
= 61.9
Therefore, the current PCR for this section is 61.9.

Assume other distress values besides IRI remain unchanged,

PCR = 95.6 5.51 (5.0 - PSR) 7.47 4.42 3.98 6.37
60.0 = 95.6 5.51 (5.0 - PSR) 7.47 4.42 3.98 6.37
PSR = 2.575
-0.000322 IRI 0 .0016027
PSR = 5e
IRI = 1851
Therefore, the IRI of 1851 mm/km will trigger the rehabilitation.

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 Chapter 21: Pavement Management

21-13
Referring to the Markovian transition matrix in Table 21.6, what is the probability
that a section with a PCR value of 77 in the current year will have a PCR value
between 60 and 69 (a) one year later, and (b) two years later.

(a) According to the transition matrix, the section is currently in state 7. Therefore
the probability of dropping to state 6 (PCR between 60 and 69) in the next year is
0.30.

(b) To predict the condition two years ahead, one will have to apply the matrix
twice, and consider all possibilities as follows:

A section currently in state 7 can in one year:

remain in state 7 with a probability of 0.60
drop to state 6 with the probability of 0.30
drop to state 5 with a probability of 0.10
For the second year:
A section in state 7 can drop to state 6 with a probability of 0.30
A section in state 6 can remain in state 6 with a probability of 0.50
A section in state 5 can move to state 6 with a probability of 0.00

Therefore, the probability of that section currently in state 7 of being in state 6 two
years later can be calculated as:
Probability = (0.60)(0.30) + (0.30)(0.50)
Probability = 0.33

The probability of the given section being in state 6 in two years is 0.33.

21-14
Differentiate between corrective and preventive rehabilitation techniques. Cite three
examples of surface treatments in each category. What is the best preventive
maintenance technique for subsurface maintenance?

Corrective rehabilitation involves the permanent or temporary repair of

deficiencies on an as-needed basis. Techniques include patching, crack filling, joint
sealing, and seal coat (with aggregate). Preventive rehabilitation involves surface
applications of either structural or non-structural improvements intended to keep
the quality of the pavement above a predetermined level. Techniques include fog
seal asphalt rejuvenators, joint sealing, and seal coat (with aggregate). The best
preventative technique for subsurface maintenance is proper and functional
drainage.

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

21-15
Describe the techniques used to repair flexible and rigid pavements and their
effectiveness for the following treatment types: (a) patching, (b) crack maintenance,
and (c) overlays.

(a) Patching
Techniques: Temporary, permanent, spot seal (spray), cold mix, hot mix, and level.
Effectiveness: When properly done, patching is considered to be effective.
Temporary patching is considered moderately effective to serve for a short period
until permanent repairs can be made.

(b) Crack Maintenance

Techniques: Crack cleaning, sealing and filling
Effectiveness: Relatively effective. Fairly short life. Must be repeated often (1- 2
years)

(c) Overlays
Techniques: Thick or thin. Pavement reinforcing, fabric overlays, inverted overlays
Effectiveness: Considered to be an effective technique.

21-16
What is the basic difference between an expert system and a conventional computer
program?

The basic difference lies in the fact that an expert system utilizes knowledge or
experience, and therefore they can address problems that can only be solved
through heuristics or subjective knowledge. Conventional computer programs, on
the other hand, are basically quantitative and computational in nature, and address
problems where a defined answer exists.

21-17
Discuss the differences between condition and priority assessment models used in
developing pavement improvement programs.

Condition assessment is a method for developing single-year programs. The

pavement condition is compared against an established criterion or trigger point
to decide whether a deficiency or need exists. Consequently, all sections are
separated into two groups: now needs and later needs. The condition
assessment model is only concerned with the now needs. Having decided upon
which sections need an action, the next step is to select appropriate treatments.
This could involve the use of simple economic analysis methods. If the needs
exceed the budget, a ranking of the potential projects is performed to determine
which of the needs could be deferred to the next year.

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 Chapter 21: Pavement Management

Priority assessment, on the other hand, is a method for developing

multiyear programs, and therefore, may be considered an extension of the condition
assessment method. In this method, performance prediction models are used to
predict when each road section will reach its trigger point. That is, instead of
separating the network into two groups as with the condition assessment method,
this method separates the pavement sections into a number of groups according to
the year where action will be needed. The process from this point is essentially the
same as the condition assessment method.

21-18
Describe six methods that can be used to select a program of pavement rehabilitation.

The six methods that can be used to select a program of pavement rehabilitation
are: 1) Cost effectiveness, 2) Economic cost analysis (Present Worth), 3) Allocation
process, 4) Sufficiency ratings, 5) Visual inspections, and 6) Management plans.
The method selected will depend on data availability and viewpoints of
transportation agencies concerning the relevant factors for selecting projects.

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

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