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Periodontology 2000, Vol. 34, 2004, 921 Copyright # Blackwell Munksgaard 2004
Printed in Denmark. All rights reserved PERIODONTOLOGY 2000
What is a periodontal diagnosis? mately fails to resolve the patient's periodontal pro-
blem.
A periodontal diagnosis is an important label that The diagnostic label captures, in a few words, a
clinicians place on a patient's periodontal condition clinician's entire past experience with a disease or
or disease. In the current practice of periodontics it is condition. It is a summary term that helps guide the
primarily derived from information obtained from clinician toward answering questions that are impor-
the patient's medical and dental histories combined tant to both the dentist and patient:
with ndings from a thorough oral examination. The What is the cause of the disease or condition?
entire constellation of signs and symptoms asso- Is referral to another, more experienced, clinician
ciated with the disease or condition is taken into appropriate?
account before arriving at a diagnosis. In some What will happen if the disease or condition is not
instances additional information provided by labora- treated?
tory tests is useful in the overall decision-making What are the treatment options?
process. Under the best of circumstances a period- What is the best treatment?
ontal diagnosis is a clinician's best guess as to what What is the expected outcome of treatment (i.e.
condition or disease the patient has. Assignment of a prognosis)?
diagnosis carries with it the implication that the clin- What are the anticipated side effects of treatment?
ician has ruled out other possible diseases that the Will the treatment be painful?
patient might have had. Since diagnostic deductions Will the treatment result in esthetic problems?
(i.e. reasonable guesses) are made on the basis of How long will treatment take?
incomplete knowledge of a patient's actual condi- How much will the treatment cost?
tion, it is important to realize that the assigned diag- Importantly, most patients will want these
nosis might be wrong. Because there is always some questions addressed before treatment has started. It
uncertainty, experienced clinicians routinely develop should be emphasized that from the perspective of
a differential diagnosis that is a listing of the possible many patients a ``healthy'' periodontium is one that
diagnoses of a patient's condition ranked from most is comfortable and free from functional and esthetic
likely to least likely. A differential diagnosis is impor- problems. Therefore, it is always a good practice to
tant because it provides the clinician with other diag- establish a diagnosis and discuss its implications
nostic options if the initial diagnosis subsequently with the patient prior to starting any therapeutic
proves to be wrong. procedures.
A carefully considered periodontal diagnosis is of
major importance in the subsequent management of
a patient's periodontal disease. An accurate diagno- Current classification system what
sis is often a rst step toward development of a well- are possible periodontal diagnoses?
designed and appropriate treatment plan that when
implemented leads to resolution of the patient's per- Plaque-induced periodontal diseases have tradition-
iodontal infection. An incorrect diagnosis often leads ally been divided into three general categories:
to an ill-conceived treatment approach that ulti- health, gingivitis, or periodontitis. In this context,
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Diagnoses and classification of periodontal diseases
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Table 2. Partial list of possible diagnoses for destructive types of periodontal diseases (1999 Classication) (10)
Chronic periodontitis (Localized/Generalized) (30)
Localized aggressive periodontitis (52, 95)
Generalized aggressive periodontitis (52, 95)
Periodontitis as a manifestation of systemic diseases
Associated with hematologic disorders:
Acquired neutropenia (43)
Leukemias (6, 91)
Associated with genetic disorders
Familial and cyclic neutropenia (76, 90)
Down's syndrome (78)
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency syndromes (65, 97)
Papillon-Lefevre syndrome (38, 50)
Chediak-Higashi syndrome (37)
Langerhans cell disease (histiocytosis syndromes) (68, 96)
Glycogen storage disease (50)
Chronic granulomatous disease (17)
Infantile genetic agranulocytosis (81)
Cohen syndrome (1, 50)
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (Types IV and VIII) (50, 75)
Hypophosphatasia (18)
Crohn disease (inflammatory bowel disease) (30, 47)
Marfan syndrome (92)
Necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis (NUP) (23, 69)
Abscesses of the periodontium (23, 39, 63)
Combined periodonticendodontic lesions (64, 79)
12
Diagnoses and classification of periodontal diseases
Table 3. Some of the multiple ways to correctly phrase a periodontal diagnosis for a middle-aged patient with slight
gingivitis around most teeth, who also has severe chronic periodontitis (clinical attachment loss 6 mm) localized
to the mesial surfaces of three teeth on the mandibular left where there are 8 mm probing depths and bleeding on
probing at the periodontitis-affected sites
Diagnostic field and emphasis Phrasing of the diagnosis
Focus on one disease (periodontitis)
Single surfaces of affected teeth Severe chronic periodontitis on the mesial surfaces of teeth #18, 19, and 20
Single teeth Severe chronic periodontitis localized to teeth #18, 19, and 20
Quadrant Severe chronic periodontitis localized to the mandibular left quadrant
Patient Localized severe chronic periodontitis
Focus on both diseases (gingivitis and periodontitis)
Patient and single surfaces of Generalized slight gingivitis with severe chronic periodontitis on the
affected teeth mesial surfaces of teeth #18, 19, and 20
Patient and single teeth Generalized slight gingivitis with severe chronic periodontitis localized to
teeth #18, 19, and 20
Patient and quadrant Generalized slight gingivitis with severe chronic periodontitis localized to
the mandibular left quadrant
Patient Generalized slight gingivitis with localized severe chronic periodontitis
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Diagnoses and classification of periodontal diseases
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Armitage
Table 5. Main clinical features and characteristics of chronic periodontitis (1999 Classication) (10)
Most prevalent in adults, but can occur in children and adolescents
Amount of destruction is consistent with the presence of local factors
Subgingival calculus is a frequent finding
Associated with a variable microbial pattern
Slow to moderate rate of progression, but may have periods of rapid progression
Can be associated with local predisposing factors (e.g., tooth-related or iatrogenic factors)
May be modified by and/or associated with systemic diseases (e.g., diabetes mellitus)
Can be modified by factors other than systemic disease such as cigarette smoking and emotional stress
data clearly show that the disease can also be found of LAP is usually made. In addition, in most cases
in children and adolescents (3, 72). Although chronic of LAP the traditional view is that the, ``amounts of
periodontitis can occur in localized or generalized microbial deposits are inconsistent with the severity
patterns, the two forms appear to be identical with of periodontal tissue destruction'' (52). If the
regards to their etiology and pathogenesis. destruction is found around at least three permanent
Aggressive periodontitis is less common than teeth other than rst molars and incisors, the diag-
chronic periodontitis and principally affects young nosis of GAP is usually made (52).
patients (3, 72). It occurs in localized and generalized As in the case of chronic periodontitis, both forms
forms that differ in many respects with regard to their of aggressive periodontitis are plaque-induced infec-
etiology and pathogenesis (52). Localized aggressive tions and host responses to plaque bacteria are
periodontitis (LAP) and generalized aggressive peri- responsible for most of the tissue destruction. The
odontitis (GAP) were previously called ``localized and plaque biolms are, however, often clinically thinner
generalized juvenile periodontitis,'', respectively (5). than in cases of chronic periodontitis. As mentioned
Features of aggressive periodontitis that are common above, this is particularly true in cases of LAP.
to both the localized and generalized forms of the Based on several specic clinical and host-
disease are shown in Table 6. response differences between LAP and GAP, it is clear
The thought process followed in distinguishing that LAP is not merely a localized form of GAP. Fea-
between chronic and aggressive forms of periodon- tures that are said to be specic for each of these
titis initially focuses on 1) the amount and pattern of forms of aggressive periodontitis are shown in
periodontal destruction and 2) the patient's age and Table 7. Importantly, LAP generally has a circumpu-
medical status. One begins to suspect that a patient bertal onset or is rst detected and diagnosed during
might have a form of aggressive periodontitis if they puberty, whereas GAP is usually detected and diag-
are young, medically healthy and present with exten- nosed in people under 30 years of age. However,
sive periodontal destruction. If the periodontal some patients with GAP may be older than 30 years
destruction is localized to interproximal areas of of age. It has been suggested that patients with LAP
permanent rst molars and incisors, the diagnosis usually mount a robust serum antibody response to
Table 6. Features of aggressive periodontitis that are common to both the localized and generalized forms of the
disease (1999 Classication) (52)
Primary features
Except for the presence of periodontitis, patients are otherwise clinically healthy
Rapid attachment loss and bone destruction
Familial aggregation
Secondary features (often present)
Amounts of microbial deposits are inconsistent with the severity of periodontal tissue destruction
Elevated proportions of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and, in some populations, Porphyromonas gingivalis
may be elevated
Phagocyte abnormalities
Hyperresponsive macrophage phenotype, including elevated levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and interleukin-1b
(IL-1b)
Progression of attachment loss and bone loss may be self-arresting
16
Diagnoses and classification of periodontal diseases
Table 7. Specic features of localized and generalized aggressive periodontitis (1999 Classication) (52)
Localized aggressive periodontitis
Circumpubertal onset
Robust serum antibody to infecting agents
Localized first molar/incisor presentation with interproximal attachment loss on at least two permanent teeth, one
of which is a first molar, and involving no more than two teeth other than first molars and incisors
Generalized aggressive periodontitis
Usually affecting persons under 30 years of age, but patients may be older
Poor serum antibody response to infecting agents
Pronounced episodic nature of the destruction of attachment and alveolar bone
Generalized interproximal attachment loss affecting at least three permanent teeth other than first molars and incisors
periodontal pathogens, whereas patients with GAP tive noninammatory condition, was actually an
exhibit a poor antibody response to the infecting infection with a denite inammatory component
agents (52). Comparisions of the main clinical charac- (11). As a consequence of this discovery, most clas-
teristics of chronic, localized aggressive, and general- sication systems for periodontal diseases published
ized aggressive periodontitis are shown in Table 8. after 1977 do not include degenerative or noninam-
matory categories.
Page & Sturdivant have recently proposed the exis-
Noninflammatory destructive
tence of a form of ``noninammatory destructive
periodontal disease (NDPD) does it
periodontal disease (NDPD)'' and that it ``. . .is seen
exist?
rather commonly by practicing periodontists'' (71).
Most of the destructive forms of periodontal disease These authors supported their suggestion by present-
discussed in this chapter are primarily caused by ing two case reports of patients who progressively
dental plaque biolms. Classication of these afic- experienced gingival recession and loss of attach-
tions follows an infection/host response paradigm in ment over a period of several years. Importantly,
which it is held that noxious materials from dental both patients practiced intense and frequent tooth-
plaque bacteria induce an inammatory response in brushing and use of ``. . .multiple forms of interdental
the adjacent periodontal tissues (11). The lytic activ- cleaning including dental oss and interdental
ities associated with inammation are the primary brushes and various probes, picks and sticks'' (71).
way in which periodontal tissues are destroyed. Cen- In addition, the authors reviewed the early literature
tral to this paradigm is the notion that destruction of in which references have been made to the
periodontal tissues is accompanied by an inamma- ``. . .absorption, or wasting of the alveolar processes.''
tory response. They quote an early book by Joseph Fox (1823) who
However, for the past 250 years some clinicians stated, ``Sometimes this disease proceeds without
have described what they believed were ``noninam- the appearance of any assignable cause, the gums
matory destructive periodontal diseases'' in which retain a very healthy aspect, are quite free of pain
periodontal tissues were gradually lost without the or inammation, and yet will gradually recede, until
presence of inammation (71). Indeed, from the teeth become very loose'' (31). Finally, Page &
approximately 1920 to 1970, most classication sys- Sturdivant state that the 1999 classication of period-
tems for periodontal diseases included noninam- ontal diseases and conditions adopted by the Amer-
matory (i.e. degenerative, atrophic) categories. The ican Academy of Periodontology (AAP) makes ``. . .no
primary reasons for including these categories were allowance for the possible existence of forms of per-
the clinical impressions (i.e. opinions) of clinicians iodontal disease that may not full [sic] the pre-
and the long-held assumption that periodontal dis- scribed characteristics'' (71).
eases followed the ``principles of general pathology'' Although their paper is interesting and thought
in which ``there are three major tissues reactions: provoking, the arguments presented by Page & Stur-
inammatory, dystrophic, neoplastic'' (11, 70). divant for the existence of a specic noninamma-
Despite the lack of supporting scientic data, the tory destructive periodontal disease are weak and
existence of such diseases was never seriously chal- unconvincing. Examination of the two case reports
lenged until it was convincingly shown in the 1970's strongly suggests that the progressive gingival reces-
that ``periodontosis,'' a name given to a destructive sion and loss of attachment were secondary to self-
periodontal disease that was presumably a degenera- inicted injury caused by longstanding abusive oral
17
Armitage
discernible pattern
18
Diagnoses and classification of periodontal diseases
Although Hunter and Fox made signicant and 5. American Academy of Periodontology. Consensus report.
Discussion section I. In: Nevins M, Becker W, Kornman K,
insightful contributions to the eld of their day,
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7. Armitage GC. Clinical evaluation of periodontal diseases.
neers of periodontics to recognize the infectious and
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cases of chronic and aggressive periodontitis the tis-
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